Methods of phonological analysisThe

Methods of phonological analysis
The aim of phonological (phonemic) analysis is to determine phonemic (functional) and non-phonemic (articulatory) differences of speech
sounds and to identify the inventory of language phonemes.
The phonological analysis of both unknown languages and languages
already described can be fulfilled within two steps.
The first step which is especially important when investigating an unknown language is to identify the minimal segments of speech continuum
and record them graphically by means of allophonic transcription. 26
The second step is to arrange the sounds into functionally similar
groups in order to find contrastive phoneme sounds and allophones of the
same sounds.
There are two main methods of phonological investigation: the distributional method and the semantic method, but they get different interpretation in modern phonology.
I. According to the distributional method phonemes of any language
are discovered by rigid classification of all the sounds pronounced by
native speakers according to the following laws of phonemic and allophonic distribution:
— allophones of different phonemes occur in the same phonetic context and their distribution is contrastive;
— allophones of the same phoneme(s) never occur in the same phonetic context, their distribution is complementary and the choice
depends on phonetic environment.
Numerous examples seem to qualify this approach.
Thus in the opposition let —
pet —
bet all initial sounds are different
phonemes, because they occur in the same initial position before a vowel.
At the same time [t
h] and [t
o] in take and let present allophonic variants of
the same phoneme: [t
h] never occurs in the final word position and never
follows [s], while [t
o] never occurs initially before stressed vowels.
Still linguists find some lacks in this approach.
First, there are cases when two sounds are in complementary distribution, but are not referred to the same phonemes. For example, [h] occurs
only initially or before a vowel (heat) while [ŋ] occurs only medially or
finally after a vowel and never occurs initially (sing).
Then there is one more possibility of distribution besides contrastive
and complementary ones. These are free variants of a single phoneme
when both sounds occur in a language but native speakers are inconsistent in the way they use them (калоши-галоши).
Thus the distributional method doesn’t get a wide acknowledgement
in our home linguistics, because the distinctive function of the phoneme
is underestimated.
II. The semantic method is based on the functional rule that phonemes can distinguish words and morphemes when opposed to one an-27
other. It consists in the systemic substitution of one sound for another in
the same phonetic context in order to find cases in which such a replacement leads to the change of meaning. This procedure is called the commutation test and it helps to establish minimal oppositional pairs of words
and word-forms presenting different meaning.
For example, pin can be successively substituted for bin, sin, din, tin,
win, and each minimal opposition will present different meanings. But the
substitution of [p
h] for [p] in pin doesn’t bring about any change in meaning, though it’s wrong from the point of view of English pronunciation
norm. So it’s possible to conclude that [p], [b], [s], [d], [t], [w] are different
phonemes whereas [p
h] and [p] are allophones of the same phoneme.
Any phoneme of a language is opposed to another phoneme at least
in one minimal oppositional pair thus performing the distinctive function.
The phonemic structure of a language is established according to the system of oppositions, which include minimal pairs of word-initial, wordmedial and word-final positions.
N.S. Trubetzkoy has worked out the classification of phonological
oppositions which is based on the number of distinctive features. It concerns only relevant (distinctive) features of phonemes. The non-distinctive features are not taken into consideration.
1. A single phonological opposition is established on the basis of a single difference in the articulation of two speech sounds. For example,
the opposed phonemes in the minimal pair ‘pen
— ben’ possess some
common features (occlusive, labial) and one differentiating feature
(fortis vs. lenis).
2. A double phonological opposition marks two differences in the articulation and presents a sum of two single oppositions. For istance,
the minimal pair ‘pen
— den’ presents one common feature (occlusive) and two differentiating feature (labial vs. lingual, voicelessfortis vs. voiced-lenis).
3. A triple phonological opposition has three articulatory differences,
presenting a sum of three single oppositions. For example, there are
three differentiating features in the minimal pair ‘pen — then’ (occlusive vs. constrictive, labial vs. dental, voiceless-fortis vs. voicedlenis). 28
The semantic method is widely used in Russian and foreign linguistics, as it attaches great significance to meaning and concerns both articulatory and functional characteristics of phonemes.
A thorough investigation of the problems of phonemes, allophones and
phones and different metods of phonological analysis is given in the book
by M.A. Sokolova “Theoretical phonetics of the English language” [19].

Результаты (русский) 1:

Методы анализа фонологическиеЦель фонологических (фонематического) анализа заключается в определении фонематического (функциональные) и не фонематического (артикуляционные) различия речи звуки и определения перечня языка фонем. Фонологические анализ обоих неизвестные языки и языки уже описаны могут быть выполнены в два этапа. Первый шаг, который особенно важен при расследовании неизвестный язык является для определения минимальной сегментов речи континуум и записывать их графически с помощью allophonic транскрипции. 26Второй шаг заключается в том, чтобы организовать звуки в функционально аналогичные группы для того, чтобы найти звуки Контрастивная фонемы и аллофонами из же звуки. Существует два основных метода фонологические исследования: метод распределения и семантической метод, но они получают различные интерпретации в современном фонология.I. Согласно распределительного метода фонем любого языка обнаруживаются по жесткой классификации всех звуков, вынесенного носителями языка по следующим законам фонематического и allophonic распределения:— аллофонами разных фонем происходит в том же контексте фонетические и их распределение Контрастивная; — аллофонами же phoneme(s) никогда не встречаются в этом же контексте фонетические, их распределение дополнительных и выбор зависит от фонетических среды. Многочисленные примеры, как представляется, получить этот подход. Thus in the opposition let — pet — bet all initial sounds are different phonemes, because they occur in the same initial position before a vowel. At the same time [th] and [to] in take and let present allophonic variants of the same phoneme: [th] never occurs in the final word position and neverfollows [s], while [to] never occurs initially before stressed vowels. Still linguists find some lacks in this approach. First, there are cases when two sounds are in complementary distribution, but are not referred to the same phonemes. For example, [h] occurs only initially or before a vowel (heat) while [ŋ] occurs only medially or finally after a vowel and never occurs initially (sing). Then there is one more possibility of distribution besides contrastive and complementary ones. These are free variants of a single phoneme when both sounds occur in a language but native speakers are inconsistent in the way they use them (калоши-галоши). Thus the distributional method doesn’t get a wide acknowledgement in our home linguistics, because the distinctive function of the phoneme is underestimated. II. The semantic method is based on the functional rule that phonemes can distinguish words and morphemes when opposed to one an-27other. It consists in the systemic substitution of one sound for another in the same phonetic context in order to find cases in which such a replacement leads to the change of meaning. This procedure is called the commutation test and it helps to establish minimal oppositional pairs of words and word-forms presenting different meaning. For example, pin can be successively substituted for bin, sin, din, tin, win, and each minimal opposition will present different meanings. But the substitution of [ph] for [p] in pin doesn’t bring about any change in meaning, though it’s wrong from the point of view of English pronunciation norm. So it’s possible to conclude that [p], [b], [s], [d], [t], [w] are different phonemes whereas [ph] and [p] are allophones of the same phoneme.Any phoneme of a language is opposed to another phoneme at least in one minimal oppositional pair thus performing the distinctive function. The phonemic structure of a language is established according to the system of oppositions, which include minimal pairs of word-initial, wordmedial and word-final positions.N.S. Trubetzkoy has worked out the classification of phonological oppositions which is based on the number of distinctive features. It concerns only relevant (distinctive) features of phonemes. The non-distinctive features are not taken into consideration.1. A single phonological opposition is established on the basis of a single difference in the articulation of two speech sounds. For example, the opposed phonemes in the minimal pair ‘pen
— ben’ possess some
common features (occlusive, labial) and one differentiating feature
(fortis vs. lenis).
2. A double phonological opposition marks two differences in the articulation and presents a sum of two single oppositions. For istance,
the minimal pair ‘pen
— den’ presents one common feature (occlusive) and two differentiating feature (labial vs. lingual, voicelessfortis vs. voiced-lenis).
3. A triple phonological opposition has three articulatory differences,
presenting a sum of three single oppositions. For example, there are
three differentiating features in the minimal pair ‘pen — then’ (occlusive vs. constrictive, labial vs. dental, voiceless-fortis vs. voicedlenis). 28
The semantic method is widely used in Russian and foreign linguistics, as it attaches great significance to meaning and concerns both articulatory and functional characteristics of phonemes.
A thorough investigation of the problems of phonemes, allophones and
phones and different metods of phonological analysis is given in the book
by M.A. Sokolova “Theoretical phonetics of the English language” [19].

Результаты (русский) 3:

методы анализа
цель of of (фонетическая) анализа заключается в том, чтобы определить фонетическая (функциональных) и не фонетическая (артикуляционные) различия слова
звучит и определить перечень языков фонемы.
The of анализ как неизвестных языках и языках
уже говорилось, могут быть реализованы в течение двух шагов.
первый шаг, который имеет особенно важное значение в случаях расследования неизвестный язык является определение минимальных слоев речи континуум
и записывать их графически с помощью allophonic транскрипции.26
второй шаг состоит в том, чтобы организовать звуки в функционально схожих
групп, с тем чтобы найти контрастивная... звучит и аллофонов из
же звучит.
существует два основных метода распределения of расследование: метод и семантические методы, но они получают различные толкования в современной фонология.
I. в зависимости от метода распределения фонемы любого языка
обнаружены жесткая классификация все звуки, вынесенного
родным в следующие законы фонетическая и allophonic распределения: