Private EnterpriseIn capitalist eco

Private Enterprise
In capitalist economies, a predominant proportion of productive capacity has belonged to companies, in the sense of for-profit organizations. This include many forms of organizations that existed in earlier economic systems, such as sole proprietorships and partnerships. Non-profit organizations existing in capitalism include cooperatives, credit unions and communes.
More unique to capitalism is the form of organization called corporation, which can be both for-profit and non-profit. This entity can act as a virtual person in many matters before the law. This gives some unique advantages to the owners, such as limited liability of the owners and perpetual lifetime beyond that of current owners.
A special form of corporation is a corporation owned by shareholders who can sell their shares in a market. One can view shares as converting company ownership into a commodity - the ownership rights are divided into units (the shares) for ease of trading in them. Such share trading first took place widely in Europe during the 17th century and continued to develop and spread thereafter. When company ownership is spread among many shareholders, the shareholders generally have votes in the exercise of authority over the company in proportion to the size of their share of ownership.
To a large degree, authority over productive capacity in capitalism has resided with the owners of companies. Within legal limits and the financial means available to them, the owners of each company can decide how it will operate. In larger companies, authority is usually delegated in a hierarchical or bureaucratic system of management.
Importantly, the owners receive some of the profits or proceeds generated by the company, sometimes in the form of dividends, sometimes from selling their ownership at higher price than their initial cost. They may also re-invest the profit in the company which may increase future profits and value of the company. They may also liquidate the company, selling all of the equipment, land, and other assets, and split the proceeds between them.
The price at which ownership of productive capacity sells is generally the maximum of either the net present value of the expected future stream of profits or the value of the assets, net of any obligations. There is therefore a financial incentive for owners to exercise their authority in ways that increase the productive capacity of what they own. Various owners are motivated to various degrees by this incentive – some give away a proportion of what they own, others seem very driven to increase their holdings. Nevertheless the incentive is always there, and it is credited by many as being a key aspect behind the remarkably consistent growth exhibited by capitalist economies. Meanwhile, some critics of capitalism claim that the incentive for the owners is exaggerated and that it results in the owners receiving money that rightfully belongs to the workers, while others point to the fact that the incentive only motivates owners to make a profit - something which may not necessarily result in a positive impact on society. Others note that in order to get a profit in a non-violent way, one must satisfy some need among other persons that they are willing to pay for. Also, most people in practice prefer to work for and buy products from for-profit organizations rather than to buy from or work for non-profit and communal production organizations which are legal in capitalist economies and which anyone can start or join.
When starting a business, the initial owners or investors typically provide some money (the capital) which is used by the business to buy or lease some means of production. For example, the enterprise may buy or lease a piece of land and a building; it may buy machinery and hire workers (labor-power), or the capitalist may provide the labor himself. The commodities produced by the workers become the property of the capitalist ("capitalist" in this context refers to a person who has capital, rather than a person who favors capitalism), and are sold by the workers on behalf of the capitalist or by the capitalist himself. The money from sales also becomes the property of the capitalist. The capitalist pays the workers a portion of this profit for their labor, pays other overhead costs, and keeps the rest. This profit may be used in a variety of ways, it may be consumed, or it may be used in pursuit of more profit such as by investing it in the development of new products or technological innovations, or expanding the business into new geographic territories. If more money is needed than the initial owners are willing or able to provide, the business may need to borrow a limited amount of extra money with a promise to pay it back with interest. In effect, it may rent more capital.


Profit
The pursuit and realization of profit is an essential characteristic of capitalism. Profit is derived by selling a product for more than the cost required to produce or acquire it. Some consider the pursuit of profit to be the essence of capitalism. Sociologist and economist, Max Weber, says that "capitalism is identical with the pursuit of profit, and forever renewed profit, by means of conscious, rational, capitalistic enterprise". However, it is not a unique characteristic for capitalism, some practiced profitable barter and monetary profit has been known since antiquity.
Opponents of capitalism often protest that private owners of capital do not remunerate laborers the full value of their production but keep a portion as profit, claiming this to be exploitative. However, defenders of capitalism argue that when a worker is paid the wage for which he agreed to work, there is no exploitation, especially in a free market where no one else is making an offer more desirable to the worker; that "the full value of a worker's production" is based on his work, not on how much profit is created, something that depends almost entirely on factors that are independent of the worker's performance; that profit is a critical measure of how much value is created by the production process; that the private owners are the ones who should decide how much of the profit is to be used to increase the compensation of the workers (which they often do, as bonuses); and that profit provides the capital for further growth and innovation.

Economic Growth

One of the primary objectives in a social system in which commerce and property have a central role is to promote the growth of capital. The standard measures of growth are Gross Domestic Product or GDP, capacity utilization, and 'standard of living'.
The ability of capitalist economies to increase and improve their stock of capital was central to the argument which Adam Smith advanced for a free market setting production, price and resource allocation. It has been argued that GDP per capita was essentially flat until the industrial revolution and the emergence of the capitalist economy, and that it has since increased rapidly in capitalist countries. It has also been argued that a higher GDP per capita promotes a higher standard of living, including the adequate or improved availability of food, housing, clothing, health care, reduced working hours and freedom from work for children and the elderly. These are reduced or unavailable if the GDP per capita is too low, so that most people are living a marginal existence.
Economic growth is, however, not universally viewed as an unequivocal good. The downside of such growth is referred to by economists as the 'externalization of costs'. Among other things, these effects include pollution, the disruption of traditional living patterns and cultures, the spread of pathogens, wars over resources or market access, and the creation of underclasses.
No matter how wealthy the richest capitalists are, it does not ensure the well-being of all the citizens. Such examples of this include the Hurricane Katrina crisis in New Orleans where the working class (a majority of them being African-American) were left without aid despite the US being the wealthiest country in the world at that time.
In defense of capitalism, liberal philosopher Isaiah Berlin has claimed that all of these ills are neither unique to capitalism, nor are they its inevitable consequences.
Critique of Inequality in Capitalism
It is reasonable to expect that some disparity in wealth and income among individuals would exist in a capitalist system as this is determined through market forces rather than by centralized governmental authorities. Some view a significant disparity and concentration of wealth to be problem and that such is endemic to capitalism, while others do not have such egalitarian concerns. Some opponents of capitalism assert that there should be no inequality in wealth and earnings among individuals commensurate to their inheritance, skills, abilities or efforts. Defenders of capitalism respond that since free market capitalism distributes wealth and earnings among individuals commensurate to their inheritance, skills, abilities and efforts, it provides inherent incentives for human beings tohone their skills, improve their abilities, and make strong efforts to meet the needs of each other, incentives that are missing or significantly less present in any other type of economic/political system.
Other critics argue that inequality may be necessary but that the distribution of wealth and earnings is unfair or immoral in capitalism. In the capitalist economies, the distributions of earnings and, especially, of wealth are concentrated and skewed to the right. In the US, the shares of earnings and wealth of the households in the top 1 percent of the corresponding distributions are 15 percent and 30 percent, respectively.
Some critics note that there are very few people who are twice as tall as average, or who can run twice as fast, or have twice as high an IQ. Some critics argue that the fact capitalism doesn't distribute w

Результаты (русский) 1:

Частное предприятиеВ капиталистических странах преобладает доля производственного потенциала принадлежит компании, в том смысле, некоммерческих организаций. Это включает различные формы организаций, которые существовали ранее экономических систем, таких как единоличной и партнерских отношений. Некоммерческих организаций, существующих в условиях капитализма включают кооперативы, кредитные союзы и коммун.Более уникальным для капитализма является формой организации под названием корпорация, которая может быть как коммерческие, так и некоммерческие. Этот орган может действовать как виртуальный человек во многих вопросах перед законом. Это дает некоторые уникальные преимущества для владельцев, таких как общество с ограниченной ответственностью владельцев и вечный жизни выходит за рамки текущих владельцев.Особая форма корпорации является корпорацией, принадлежит акционерам, которые могут продать свои доли на рынке. Можно просмотреть акций как преобразования собственности компании в товар - права собственности делятся единиц (акций) для облегчения торговли в них. Такая торговля доля впервые прошла широко в Европе в XVII веке и продолжала разрабатывать и распространять впоследствии. Когда компания собственности распространяется среди многих акционеров, акционеры, как правило, голосов власти над компании пропорционально размерам их долей собственности.В значительной степени власть над производственного потенциала в условиях капитализма проживал с владельцами компаний. В рамках правовых ограничений и имеющихся у них финансовых средств владельцев каждой компании может решить, как она будет работать. В больших компаниях это обычно полномочия в иерархической или бюрократической системы управления.Важно отметить, что владельцы получают часть прибыли или доходов, генерируемых компании, иногда в виде дивидендов, иногда от продажи их собственности по более высокой цене, чем их первоначальной стоимости. Они могут также реинвестировать прибыли в компании, которая может увеличить будущей прибыли и стоимости компании. Они также могут ликвидировать компанию, продавая все земли, оборудования и других активов и разделение доходов между ними.The price at which ownership of productive capacity sells is generally the maximum of either the net present value of the expected future stream of profits or the value of the assets, net of any obligations. There is therefore a financial incentive for owners to exercise their authority in ways that increase the productive capacity of what they own. Various owners are motivated to various degrees by this incentive – some give away a proportion of what they own, others seem very driven to increase their holdings. Nevertheless the incentive is always there, and it is credited by many as being a key aspect behind the remarkably consistent growth exhibited by capitalist economies. Meanwhile, some critics of capitalism claim that the incentive for the owners is exaggerated and that it results in the owners receiving money that rightfully belongs to the workers, while others point to the fact that the incentive only motivates owners to make a profit - something which may not necessarily result in a positive impact on society. Others note that in order to get a profit in a non-violent way, one must satisfy some need among other persons that they are willing to pay for. Also, most people in practice prefer to work for and buy products from for-profit organizations rather than to buy from or work for non-profit and communal production organizations which are legal in capitalist economies and which anyone can start or join.When starting a business, the initial owners or investors typically provide some money (the capital) which is used by the business to buy or lease some means of production. For example, the enterprise may buy or lease a piece of land and a building; it may buy machinery and hire workers (labor-power), or the capitalist may provide the labor himself. The commodities produced by the workers become the property of the capitalist ("capitalist" in this context refers to a person who has capital, rather than a person who favors capitalism), and are sold by the workers on behalf of the capitalist or by the capitalist himself. The money from sales also becomes the property of the capitalist. The capitalist pays the workers a portion of this profit for their labor, pays other overhead costs, and keeps the rest. This profit may be used in a variety of ways, it may be consumed, or it may be used in pursuit of more profit such as by investing it in the development of new products or technological innovations, or expanding the business into new geographic territories. If more money is needed than the initial owners are willing or able to provide, the business may need to borrow a limited amount of extra money with a promise to pay it back with interest. In effect, it may rent more capital.Profit The pursuit and realization of profit is an essential characteristic of capitalism. Profit is derived by selling a product for more than the cost required to produce or acquire it. Some consider the pursuit of profit to be the essence of capitalism. Sociologist and economist, Max Weber, says that "capitalism is identical with the pursuit of profit, and forever renewed profit, by means of conscious, rational, capitalistic enterprise". However, it is not a unique characteristic for capitalism, some practiced profitable barter and monetary profit has been known since antiquity.Opponents of capitalism often protest that private owners of capital do not remunerate laborers the full value of their production but keep a portion as profit, claiming this to be exploitative. However, defenders of capitalism argue that when a worker is paid the wage for which he agreed to work, there is no exploitation, especially in a free market where no one else is making an offer more desirable to the worker; that "the full value of a worker's production" is based on his work, not on how much profit is created, something that depends almost entirely on factors that are independent of the worker's performance; that profit is a critical measure of how much value is created by the production process; that the private owners are the ones who should decide how much of the profit is to be used to increase the compensation of the workers (which they often do, as bonuses); and that profit provides the capital for further growth and innovation.
Economic Growth

One of the primary objectives in a social system in which commerce and property have a central role is to promote the growth of capital. The standard measures of growth are Gross Domestic Product or GDP, capacity utilization, and 'standard of living'.
The ability of capitalist economies to increase and improve their stock of capital was central to the argument which Adam Smith advanced for a free market setting production, price and resource allocation. It has been argued that GDP per capita was essentially flat until the industrial revolution and the emergence of the capitalist economy, and that it has since increased rapidly in capitalist countries. It has also been argued that a higher GDP per capita promotes a higher standard of living, including the adequate or improved availability of food, housing, clothing, health care, reduced working hours and freedom from work for children and the elderly. These are reduced or unavailable if the GDP per capita is too low, so that most people are living a marginal existence.
Economic growth is, however, not universally viewed as an unequivocal good. The downside of such growth is referred to by economists as the 'externalization of costs'. Among other things, these effects include pollution, the disruption of traditional living patterns and cultures, the spread of pathogens, wars over resources or market access, and the creation of underclasses.
No matter how wealthy the richest capitalists are, it does not ensure the well-being of all the citizens. Such examples of this include the Hurricane Katrina crisis in New Orleans where the working class (a majority of them being African-American) were left without aid despite the US being the wealthiest country in the world at that time.
In defense of capitalism, liberal philosopher Isaiah Berlin has claimed that all of these ills are neither unique to capitalism, nor are they its inevitable consequences.
Critique of Inequality in Capitalism
It is reasonable to expect that some disparity in wealth and income among individuals would exist in a capitalist system as this is determined through market forces rather than by centralized governmental authorities. Some view a significant disparity and concentration of wealth to be problem and that such is endemic to capitalism, while others do not have such egalitarian concerns. Some opponents of capitalism assert that there should be no inequality in wealth and earnings among individuals commensurate to their inheritance, skills, abilities or efforts. Defenders of capitalism respond that since free market capitalism distributes wealth and earnings among individuals commensurate to their inheritance, skills, abilities and efforts, it provides inherent incentives for human beings tohone their skills, improve their abilities, and make strong efforts to meet the needs of each other, incentives that are missing or significantly less present in any other type of economic/political system.
Other critics argue that inequality may be necessary but that the distribution of wealth and earnings is unfair or immoral in capitalism. In the capitalist economies, the distributions of earnings and, especially, of wealth are concentrated and skewed to the right. In the US, the shares of earnings and wealth of the households in the top 1 percent of the corresponding distributions are 15 percent and 30 percent, respectively.
Some critics note that there are very few people who are twice as tall as average, or who can run twice as fast, or have twice as high an IQ. Some critics argue that the fact capitalism doesn't distribute w

Результаты (русский) 3:

частного предпринимательства
в капиталистических странах, доминирующую долю производственного потенциала принадлежит компании, в смысле для некоммерческих организаций. Это включает многие формы организаций, которые существовали в предыдущих экономических систем, таких, как единоличной собственности и партнерских отношений. Некоммерческие организации существующих в капитализм входят кооперативы, кредитные союзы и коммун.
Более уникальным для капитализма, в форме организации под названием "корпорация, которая может быть как коммерческих, так и некоммерческих. Это лицо может действовать в качестве виртуального лица во многих вопросах перед законом. Это дает ряд уникальных преимуществ для владельцев, таких, как ограниченная ответственность владельцев и вечной жизни за рамки нынешних владельцев.
Специальная форма Corporation - корпорация принадлежит акционерам, которые могут продавать свои акции на рынке. Можно просматривать как в преобразовании компании права собственности на товар - право собственности подразделяются на единицы (акций) для упрощения торговли им. Такая доля торговых первой состоялось широкое распространение в Европе в 17-м веке, и по-прежнему разработки и распространения в дальнейшем.