The history of law is the study of

The history of law is the study of how law has evolved and why it changed. Legal history is closely connected to the development of civilizations and is set in the wider context of social history. Among certain jurists and historians of legal proces it has been seen as the recording of the evolution of laws and the technical explanation of how these laws have evolved with the view of better understanding the origins of various legal concepts, some consider it a branch of intellectual history. Twentieth century historians have viewed legal history in a more contextualized manner more in line with the thinking of social historians. They have looked at legal institutions as complex systems of rules, players and symbols and have seen these elements interact with society to change, adapt, resist or promote certain aspects of civil society. Such legal historians have tended to analyze case histories from the parameters of social science inquiry, using statistical methods, analyzing class distinctions among litigants, petitioners and other players in various legal processes. By analyzing case outcomes, transaction costs, number of settled cases they have begun an analysis of legal instinaions, practices, procedures and briefs that give us a more complex picture of law and society than the study jurisprudence, case law and civil codes can achieve.
Ancient Egyptian law, dating as far back as 3000 ВС, had a civil code that was probably broken into twelve books. It was based on the concept of Ma'at, characterized by tradition, rhetorical speech, social equality and impartiality. By the 22nd century ВС, Ur-Nammu, an ancient Sumerian ruler, formulated the first law code, consisting of casuistic statements ("if...then).
Around 1760 BC, King Hammurabi further developed Babylonian law, by codifying and inscribing it in stone. Hammurabi placed several copies of his law code throughout the kingdom of Babylon as stele, for the entire public to see; this became known as the Codex Hammurabi. The most intact copy of this stele was discovered in the 19th century by British Assyriologists, and has since been fully transliterated and translated into various languages,including English, German and French.
Ancient Athens, the small Greek city-state, was the first society based on broad inclusion of the citizenry, excluding women and the slave class. Ancient Greek has no word for "law" as an abstract concept, retaining instead the distinction between divine law (themis), human decree (nemos) and custom (dike). Yet Ancient Greek law contained major constitutional innovations in the development of democracy.

Roman law was heavily influenced by Greek teachings. It forms the bridge to the modern legal world, over the centuries between the rise and decline of the Roman Empire. Roman Law, in the days of the Roman republic and Empire, was heavily procedural and there was no professional legal class. Instead a lay person, index, was chosen to adjudicate. Precedents were not reported, so any case law that developed was disguised and almost unrecognized. Each case was to be decided afresh from the laws of the state, which mirrors the (theoretical) unimportance of judges' decisions for future cases in civil law systems today.
During the 6th century AD in the Eastern Roman Empire, the Emperor Justinian codified and consolidated the laws that had existed in Rome so that what remained was one twentieth of the mass of legal texts from before. This became known as the Corpus Juris Civilis. As one legal historian wrote, "Justinian consciously looked back to the golden age of Roman law and aimed to restore it to the peak it had reached three centuries before."
During the Byzantine Empire the Justinian Code was expanded and remained in force until the Empire fell, though it was never officially introduced to the West. Instead, following the fall of the Western Empire and in former Roman countries, the ruling classes relied on the Theodosian Code to govern natives and Germanic customary law for the Germanic incomers - a system known as folk-right - until the two laws blended together.
Since the Roman court system had broken down, legal disputes were adjudicated according to Gemanic custom by assemblies of learned law speakers in rigid ceremonies and in oral proceedings that relied heavily on testimony. After much of the West was consolidated under Charlemagne, law became centralized so as to strengthen the royal court system, and consequently case law, and abolished folk-right. However, once Charlemagne's kingdom definitively splintered, Europe became feudalistic, and law was generally not governed above the county, municipal or lordship level, thereby creating a highly decentralized legal culture that favored the development of customary law founded on localized case law.
However, in the 11th century, Crusader, having pillaged the Byzantine Empire returned with Byzantine legal texts including the Justinian Code, and scholars at the University of Bologna were the first to use them to interpret their own customary laws. Mediaeval European legal scholars begun researching the Roman law and using its concepts and prepared the way for the partial resurrection of Roman law as the modem civil law in a large part of the world. There was, however, a great deal of resistance so that civil law rivaled customary law for much of the late Middle Ages.
After the Norman conquest of England, which introduced Norman legal concepts into mediaeval England, the English King’s powerful judges developed a body of precedent that became the common law. In particular, Henry II instituted legal reforms and developed a system of royal courts administered by a small number of judges who lived in Westminster and traveled throughout the kingdom. Henry II also instituted the Assize of Clarendon in 1166, which allowed for jury trials and reduced the number of trials by combat.
Louis IX of France also undertook major legal reforms and, inspired by ecclesiastical court procedure, extended Canor-law evidence and inquisitorial-trial systems to the royal courts. Also, judges no longer moved on circuits becoming fixed to their jurisdictions, and jurors were nominated by parties to the legal dispute rather than by the sheriff.
In addition, by the 10th century, the Law Merchant, first founded on Scandinavian trade customs, then solidified by the Hanseatig League, took shape so that merchants could trade using familiar standards, rather than the many splintered types of local law. A precursor to modern commercial law, the Law Merchant emphasized the freedom of contract and alienability of property.
The two main traditions of modern European law are the codified legal systems of most of continental Europe, and the English tradition based on case law. As nationalism grew in the 18th and 19th centuries, lex mercatoria was incorporated into countries' local law under new civil codes. Of these, the French Napoleonic Code and the German Burgerliches Gesetzbuch became the most influential. As opposed to English common law, which consists of massive tomes of саsе law, codes in small books are easy to export and for judges to apply. However, today there are signs that civil and common law are converging. European Union law is codified in treaties, but develops through the precedent set down by the European Court of Justice.
English law ,in the context of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, generally means the legal system of England and Wales. While Wales now has a devolved Assembly, any legislation which that Assembly pesses is enacted in particular circumscribed policy areas defined by the Government of Wales Act 2006, other legislation of the British Parliament, or by Orders in Council given under the authority of the 2006 Act. The essence of English common law is that it is made by judges sitting is courts, applying legal precedent (stare decisis) to the facts before them. A decision of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, the highest appeal court in England and Wales, is binding on every other court
For example, murder is a common law crime rather than оnе established by an Act of Parliament. Common law can be amended or repealed by Parliament; murder, for example, now carries a mandatory life sentence rather than the death penalty. English and Welsh courts recognise the primacy of statute law over common law where the two overlap.
The United States legal system developed primarily out of the English common law system (with the exception of the state of Louisiana, which continued to follow the French civilian system after being admitted to statehood). Some concepts from Spanish law such as the prior appropriation doctrine and community property, still persist in some U.S. states, particularly those that were part of the Mexican Cession in 1848. Under the doctrine of federalism, each state has its own separate court system, and the ability to legislate within areas not reserved to the federal government.

Результаты (русский) 1:

История права является изучение эволюции права и почему она изменилась. Законная история тесно связано развитие цивилизаций и устанавливается в более широком контексте социальной истории. Среди некоторых юристов и историков правовой процесс, которую он видел как записи эволюции законов и техническое объяснение того, как развивались эти законы с целью лучшего понимания истоков различных юридических понятий, некоторые считают его филиал интеллектуальной истории. XX века историки рассматривали правовой истории в духе более контекстуального более соответствует мышления социальных историков. Они смотрели на правовые институты как сложные системы правил, игроки и символов и видели эти элементы взаимодействуют с обществом, изменять, адаптировать, сопротивляться или поощрять определенные аспекты гражданского общества. Такие юридические историки склонны анализировать историй от параметров запроса социальных наук, с использованием статистических методов, анализируя класса различия между истцами, петиционеров и другие игроки в различных юридических процессах. Анализируя случае результаты, трансакционные издержки, количество случаев поселились они начали анализ правовых instinaions, практики, процедур и трусы, которые дают нам более сложная картина права и общества чем изучения юриспруденции, прецедентного права и гражданский кодексы могут достичь. Древний египетский закон, знакомства еще 3000 ВС, имел гражданский кодекс, который вероятно был разбит на двенадцать книг. Она была основана на концепции Маат, характеризуется традиции, риторические речи, социального равенства и беспристрастности. В 22 веке ВС, ваше Намму, древних шумерских правителя, сформулировал первый закон код, состоящий из казуистика заявления («если... Затем). Около 1760 до н.э., царь Хаммурапи дальнейшее развитие Вавилонское право, путем кодификации и вписания в камне. Хаммурапи размещены несколько копий его кодекса во всем Королевстве Вавилон как Стела, для всей общественности, чтобы увидеть; Это стало известно как кодекс Хаммурапи. Наиболее нетронутыми копию этой стеле был обнаружен в XIX веке британский ассириологи и пор полностью транслитерации и переведенный на различные языки, включая английский, немецкий и французский. Древние Афины, небольшой греческий город, был первый общества, основанного на широкое включение граждан, за исключением женщин и подчиненного класса. Древнегреческие имеет не слово «права» как абстрактное понятие, вместо сохранения различия между божественный закон (themis), человека указ (nemos) и пользовательского (дамбы). Тем не менее древний греческий закон содержал основных конституционных инноваций в развитии демократии. Roman law was heavily influenced by Greek teachings. It forms the bridge to the modern legal world, over the centuries between the rise and decline of the Roman Empire. Roman Law, in the days of the Roman republic and Empire, was heavily procedural and there was no professional legal class. Instead a lay person, index, was chosen to adjudicate. Precedents were not reported, so any case law that developed was disguised and almost unrecognized. Each case was to be decided afresh from the laws of the state, which mirrors the (theoretical) unimportance of judges' decisions for future cases in civil law systems today. During the 6th century AD in the Eastern Roman Empire, the Emperor Justinian codified and consolidated the laws that had existed in Rome so that what remained was one twentieth of the mass of legal texts from before. This became known as the Corpus Juris Civilis. As one legal historian wrote, "Justinian consciously looked back to the golden age of Roman law and aimed to restore it to the peak it had reached three centuries before." During the Byzantine Empire the Justinian Code was expanded and remained in force until the Empire fell, though it was never officially introduced to the West. Instead, following the fall of the Western Empire and in former Roman countries, the ruling classes relied on the Theodosian Code to govern natives and Germanic customary law for the Germanic incomers - a system known as folk-right - until the two laws blended together. Так как сломался Римской судебной системы, правовые споры были рассмотрено согласно Gemanic пользовательских Ассамблеями уроков Закона ораторов в жесткой церемониях и в ходе устного разбирательства, которые полагались на показания. После того, как большая часть Запада была закреплена под Шарлеманя, закон стал централизованной для укрепления королевской судебной системы и, следовательно, прецедентное право и отменил фолк право. Однако после того, как окончательно расщепленные Шарлеманя Королевство, Европа стала феодального и закон вообще не регулируется выше округа, муниципальных или Лордство уровень, тем самым создавая весьма децентрализованной правовой культуры, выступает развитие обычного права, основанная на локализованных прецедентного права. Однако в XI веке, крестоносцев, разграблена Византийской империи вернулся с византийской правовых текстов, включая Кодекс Юстиниана, и ученых в Университете Болоньи были первыми, чтобы использовать их для интерпретации своих собственных норм обычного права. Средневековые европейские правоведы начали исследования римского права и с использованием своих концепций и подготовили почву для частичного воскресение римского права в качестве модема гражданского права в значительной части мира. Однако, существует большое сопротивление так что гражданского права соперничали обычного права для большей части позднего средневековья. After the Norman conquest of England, which introduced Norman legal concepts into mediaeval England, the English King’s powerful judges developed a body of precedent that became the common law. In particular, Henry II instituted legal reforms and developed a system of royal courts administered by a small number of judges who lived in Westminster and traveled throughout the kingdom. Henry II also instituted the Assize of Clarendon in 1166, which allowed for jury trials and reduced the number of trials by combat. Louis IX of France also undertook major legal reforms and, inspired by ecclesiastical court procedure, extended Canor-law evidence and inquisitorial-trial systems to the royal courts. Also, judges no longer moved on circuits becoming fixed to their jurisdictions, and jurors were nominated by parties to the legal dispute rather than by the sheriff. In addition, by the 10th century, the Law Merchant, first founded on Scandinavian trade customs, then solidified by the Hanseatig League, took shape so that merchants could trade using familiar standards, rather than the many splintered types of local law. A precursor to modern commercial law, the Law Merchant emphasized the freedom of contract and alienability of property. The two main traditions of modern European law are the codified legal systems of most of continental Europe, and the English tradition based on case law. As nationalism grew in the 18th and 19th centuries, lex mercatoria was incorporated into countries' local law under new civil codes. Of these, the French Napoleonic Code and the German Burgerliches Gesetzbuch became the most influential. As opposed to English common law, which consists of massive tomes of саsе law, codes in small books are easy to export and for judges to apply. However, today there are signs that civil and common law are converging. European Union law is codified in treaties, but develops through the precedent set down by the European Court of Justice. English law ,in the context of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, generally means the legal system of England and Wales. While Wales now has a devolved Assembly, any legislation which that Assembly pesses is enacted in particular circumscribed policy areas defined by the Government of Wales Act 2006, other legislation of the British Parliament, or by Orders in Council given under the authority of the 2006 Act. The essence of English common law is that it is made by judges sitting is courts, applying legal precedent (stare decisis) to the facts before them. A decision of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, the highest appeal court in England and Wales, is binding on every other court For example, murder is a common law crime rather than оnе established by an Act of Parliament. Common law can be amended or repealed by Parliament; murder, for example, now carries a mandatory life sentence rather than the death penalty. English and Welsh courts recognise the primacy of statute law over common law where the two overlap.The United States legal system developed primarily out of the English common law system (with the exception of the state of Louisiana, which continued to follow the French civilian system after being admitted to statehood). Some concepts from Spanish law such as the prior appropriation doctrine and community property, still persist in some U.S. states, particularly those that were part of the Mexican Cession in 1848. Under the doctrine of federalism, each state has its own separate court system, and the ability to legislate within areas not reserved to the federal government.

Результаты (русский) 3:

за исключением женщин и рабы.древнегреческая нет слова "законодательство", как абстрактное понятие, оставив вместо различие между божественным правом (темис), прав указ (nemos) и обычай (плотины).но право древней греции содержит важные конституционные новации в развитии демократии.

римского права, находится под сильным влиянием греческих учения.истории права является изучение того, каким образом права, изменилась, и почему он изменился.настоящая история тесно связаны с развитием цивилизаций и находится в более широком контексте социальной истории.истории права является изучение того, каким образом права, изменилась, и почему он изменился.настоящая история тесно связаны с развитием цивилизаций и находится в более широком контексте социальной истории.среди некоторых юристов и историков юридического процесса было видно, как регистрация изменение законов и технические разъяснения о том, каким образом эти законы изменились, с целью лучшего понимания причин различных правовых концепций, некоторые считают, что власть интеллектуальной истории.двадцатого века историки рассматривают правовой истории более согласовал образом в большее соответствие с виду социальные историки.они изучили правовые институты, как сложные системы правил, игроков и символы и видел эти элементы взаимодействия с обществом, чтобы изменять, адаптировать, сопротивление или поощрять определенные аспекты гражданского общества.на 22 - м веке ВС, ур - намму, древний шумерский правителя, разработал первый кодекс, состоящий из казуистическим заявления ("если... потом).
вокруг 1760 год до н. э. король хаммурапи дальнейшее развитие вавилонская права, путем кодификации и включения его в камень.хаммурапи поставил несколько экземпляров его кодекса во всем королевстве вавилон, как стела, для всей общественной экспертизы;это стало известно как кодекс хаммурапи.наиболее цельной копия этого стела была обнаружена в 19 - м веке британские assyriologists, и с тех пор в полной мере 12 и переведена на различные языки, в том числе на английском, немецком и французском языках.
древних афин, маленькие греческие города - государства, был первым общества на основе широкого участия населения,за исключением женщин и рабы.древнегреческая нет слова "законодательство", как абстрактное понятие, оставив вместо различие между божественным правом (темис), прав указ (nemos) и обычай (плотины).но право древней греции содержит важные конституционные новации в развитии демократии.

римского права, находится под сильным влиянием греческих учения.такие юридические историки, как правило, анализ историй болезни от параметров социальных наук и расследования, с помощью статистических методов, анализируя классовых различий между сбережениями, петиционерами и других игроков в различных правовых процессов.анализируя результаты расследований, операционные издержки, число урегулированы дела они начали анализ правовых instinaions, практики,он образует мост в современной правовой мира, на протяжении столетий между взлет и падение западной римской империи.римское право, во времена римской республики и империи, во многом процедурных и нет профессиональной юридической класса.вместо обычного человека, индекс, был выбран для вынесения решения.прецеденты были, не сообщается, так что любой прецедентного права, что развитые был замаскирован и почти незамеченной.это стало известно как корпус юрис цивилис.в качестве одной правовой историк написал, "юстиниан сознательно посмотрел на золотой век римского права, и направлена на то, чтобы восстановить до пика достиг трех столетий раньше".
в византийской империи юстиниан кодекс был расширен и остается в силе до тех пор, пока империя пала, хотя он никогда не был официально представлен на запад.вместо этого,