Text 3. Solar SystemSolar system is

Text 3. Solar System
Solar system is the sun and the family of planets, natural satellites, asteroids, meteoroids, and comets that are its captives. The motion of the planets was first described accurately by Johannes Kepler at the beginning of the 17th century; he showed that the planets move in nearly circular elliptical orbits. Isaac Newton later showed that the laws of planetary motion discovered by Kepler apply also to all other bodies in the solar system and are based on the force of gravitation. The sun’s gravitational pull is the dominant force in the solar system; the forces exerted by the other celestial bodies on one another produce small shifts and variations, called perturbations, in their orbits. The sun is by far the most massive part of the solar system, containing almost 99,9% of the system’s total mass. The sun is a rather typical star, a luminous sphere of incandescent gas with a diameter of 864 000 mi (1,4 million km), about 109 times the diameter of the earth. Its mass is roughly 2 thousand trillion trillion tons (1030 kg), about 333 000 times the mass of the earth. The sun obtains its energy from nuclear reactions in its interior and supplies all the light and nearly all the heat in the solar system. The principal members of the sun’s retinue are the nine major planets, in order of increasing distance from the sun, they are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto (see table). The three outermost planets were unknown in antiquity. Uranus was discovered in 1781 by William Herschel, who at first mistook it for a comet. Calculations based on perturbations in the orbit of Uranus led to the discovery of Neptune in 1846. The agreement between the observed and calculated positions of the new planet was justly regarded as a major confirmation of Newton’s theory of gravitation. The outermost planet, Pluto, was discovered in 1930; the possibility of planets beyond Pluto remains open. The unit for measuring distance in the solar system is the astronomical unit (AU), the average distance between the earth and the sun. The distances of the planets from the sun range from 0,39 AU for Mercury to 39 AU for Pluto. All the planets orbit the sun in approximately the same plane and move in the same direction — from west to east, or counterclockwise as viewed from above (north).
A planet’s year, or sidereal period, is the time required for it to complete one full circuit around the sun. Mercury’s year is 88 earth days, while Pluto’s year is 248 earth years. All the planets rotate about their own axes as they revolve around the sun; their periods of rotation vary from just under 10 hr for Jupiter to 243 earth days for Venus. The rotation of Venus is from east to west. The equatorial planes of the planets are tilted to various degrees with respect to their orbital planes, giving rise to yearly seasons. The planets are grouped according to their physical properties. The inner planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars) resemble the Earth and are therefore called the terrestrial planets. They are dense and small in size, with solid, rocky crusts and molten metallic interiors. Except for Mercury, they possess gaseous atmospheres from which lighter elements have escaped because of the low gravitational force. The Jovian planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) all resemble Jupiter; they have great volume and mass but relatively low density.
Jupiter is heavier than all the other planets combined; it is 318 times as heavy as the earth and 1300 times as large, making its density only about one fourth that of the earth. Saturn has a mass 95 times that of the earth and a density less than that of water. The atmospheres of the Jovian planets are very thick, merging imperceptibly with the bodies of the planets, and are rich in hydrogen, hydrogen compounds, and helium. Because of its size and apparent density, Pluto is sometimes classed with the terrestrial planets, but it is more properly considered a special case; its orbit crosses that of Neptune, indicating that it may be an escaped satellite of that planet. Most of the nine major planets have one or more satellites.
The earth’s moon is unusually large in relation to its planet. Other members of the solar system are the comets, asteroids, and meteoroids. Comets are loose aggregates of small particles that move in highly elliptical orbits; many of these orbits are so elongated that they appear to have the shape of parabolas. The origin of asteroids is unclear; one theory claims they are fragments of a planet that occupied approximately their present position and met with some disaster in the remote past. Meteoroids, which are even smaller bodies scattered in orbits throughout the solar system, are countless in number. They are too tiny to observe except when they plunge into the earth’s atmosphere and are seen as meteors, or shooting stars.
Origin of the Solar System. Several theories of the origin of the solar system have been proposed since the turn of the 19th century, but none has adequately withstood close scientific and mathematical analysis. Besides explaining the birth of the sun, planets, satellites, asteroids, and comets, such a theory must explain the chemical and physical differences of the planets and their orbital regularities, i.e., why they lie almost on the same plane and revolve in the same direction in nearly circular orbits; it must also account for the relative angular momentum of the sun and planets arising from their rotational and orbital motions.

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Текст 3. Солнечная системаSolar system is the sun and the family of planets, natural satellites, asteroids, meteoroids, and comets that are its captives. The motion of the planets was first described accurately by Johannes Kepler at the beginning of the 17th century; he showed that the planets move in nearly circular elliptical orbits. Isaac Newton later showed that the laws of planetary motion discovered by Kepler apply also to all other bodies in the solar system and are based on the force of gravitation. The sun’s gravitational pull is the dominant force in the solar system; the forces exerted by the other celestial bodies on one another produce small shifts and variations, called perturbations, in their orbits. The sun is by far the most massive part of the solar system, containing almost 99,9% of the system’s total mass. The sun is a rather typical star, a luminous sphere of incandescent gas with a diameter of 864 000 mi (1,4 million km), about 109 times the diameter of the earth. Its mass is roughly 2 thousand trillion trillion tons (1030 kg), about 333 000 times the mass of the earth. The sun obtains its energy from nuclear reactions in its interior and supplies all the light and nearly all the heat in the solar system. The principal members of the sun’s retinue are the nine major planets, in order of increasing distance from the sun, they are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto (see table). The three outermost planets were unknown in antiquity. Uranus was discovered in 1781 by William Herschel, who at first mistook it for a comet. Calculations based on perturbations in the orbit of Uranus led to the discovery of Neptune in 1846. The agreement between the observed and calculated positions of the new planet was justly regarded as a major confirmation of Newton’s theory of gravitation. The outermost planet, Pluto, was discovered in 1930; the possibility of planets beyond Pluto remains open. The unit for measuring distance in the solar system is the astronomical unit (AU), the average distance between the earth and the sun. The distances of the planets from the sun range from 0,39 AU for Mercury to 39 AU for Pluto. All the planets orbit the sun in approximately the same plane and move in the same direction — from west to east, or counterclockwise as viewed from above (north).Планета год или сидерический период, является время, необходимое для того, чтобы завершить одну полную цепь вокруг солнца. Ртути в год-88 дней земли, в то время как Плутон год — 248 лет. Все планеты вращаются о своих собственных осей, как они вращаются вокруг солнца; их периоды вращения варьируются от чуть менее 10 hr для Юпитера-243 дней земли для Венеры. Вращение Венеры — с Востока на запад. Экваториальной плоскости планет наклонены в различной степени в отношении их орбитальных плоскостях, рождая ежегодных сезонов. Планеты сгруппированы по их физическим свойствам. Внутренних планет (Меркурий, Венера, земля и Марс) напоминают земли и поэтому называются землеподобные планеты. Они плотные и небольшие по размеру, с твердой, скалистые корки и расплавленных металлических интерьеров. За исключением ртути они обладают газовой атмосферы, от которых легкие элементы сбежавших из-за низкой гравитационной силы. Юпитера планет (Юпитер, Сатурн, уран и Нептун) все похожи на Юпитер; они имеют большой объем и массу, но сравнительно низкой плотности.Jupiter is heavier than all the other planets combined; it is 318 times as heavy as the earth and 1300 times as large, making its density only about one fourth that of the earth. Saturn has a mass 95 times that of the earth and a density less than that of water. The atmospheres of the Jovian planets are very thick, merging imperceptibly with the bodies of the planets, and are rich in hydrogen, hydrogen compounds, and helium. Because of its size and apparent density, Pluto is sometimes classed with the terrestrial planets, but it is more properly considered a special case; its orbit crosses that of Neptune, indicating that it may be an escaped satellite of that planet. Most of the nine major planets have one or more satellites.The earth’s moon is unusually large in relation to its planet. Other members of the solar system are the comets, asteroids, and meteoroids. Comets are loose aggregates of small particles that move in highly elliptical orbits; many of these orbits are so elongated that they appear to have the shape of parabolas. The origin of asteroids is unclear; one theory claims they are fragments of a planet that occupied approximately their present position and met with some disaster in the remote past. Meteoroids, which are even smaller bodies scattered in orbits throughout the solar system, are countless in number. They are too tiny to observe except when they plunge into the earth’s atmosphere and are seen as meteors, or shooting stars.Origin of the Solar System. Several theories of the origin of the solar system have been proposed since the turn of the 19th century, but none has adequately withstood close scientific and mathematical analysis. Besides explaining the birth of the sun, planets, satellites, asteroids, and comets, such a theory must explain the chemical and physical differences of the planets and their orbital regularities, i.e., why they lie almost on the same plane and revolve in the same direction in nearly circular orbits; it must also account for the relative angular momentum of the sun and planets arising from their rotational and orbital motions.