(1) Various correctional approaches

(1) Various correctional approaches developed in the wake of causation theories. The old theological and moralistic theories encouraged punishment as retribution by society for evil. This attitude, indeed, still exists. The 19th-century British jurist and philosopher Jeremy Bentham tried to make the punishment more precisely fit the crime. Bentham believed that pleasure could be measured against pain in all areas of human choice and conduct and that human happiness could be attained through such hedonic calculus. He argued that criminals would be deterred from crime if they knew, specifically, the suffering they would experience if caught. Bentham therefore urged definite, inflexible penalties for each class of crime; the pain of the penalty would outweigh only slightly the pleasure of success in crime; it would exceed it sufficiently to act as a deterrent, but not so much as to amount to wanton cruelty. This so-called calculus of pleasures and pains was based on psychological postulates no longer accepted.
(2) The Bentham approach was in part superseded in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by a movement known as the neoclassical school. This school, rejecting fixed punishments, proposed that sentences vary with the particular circumstances of a crime, such as the age, intellectual level, and emotional state of the offender; the motives and other conditions that may have incited to crime; and the offender's past record and chances of rehabilitation. The influence of the neoclassical school led to the development of such concepts as grades of crime and punishment, indeterminate sentences, and the limited responsibility of young or mentally deficient offenders.
(3) At about the same time, the so-called Italian school stressed measures for preventing crime rather than punishing it. Members of this school argued that individuals are shaped by forces beyond their control and therefore cannot be held fully responsible for their crimes. They urged birth control, censorship of pornographic literature, and other actions designed to mitigate the influences contributing to crime. The Italian school has had a lasting influence on the thinking of present-day criminologists.
(4) The modern approach to the treatment of criminals owes most to psychiatric and case-study methods. Much continues to be learned from offenders who have been placed on probation or parole and whose behavior, both in and out of prison, has been studied intensively. The contemporary scientific attitude is that criminals are individual personalities and that their rehabilitation can be brought about only through individual treatment. Increased juvenile crime has aroused public concern and has stimulated study of the emotional disturbances that foster delinquency. This growing understanding of delinquency has contributed to the understanding of criminals of all ages.
(5) During recent years, crime has been under attack from many directions. The treatment and rehabilitation of criminals has improved in many areas. The emotional problems of convicts have been studied and efforts have been made to help such offenders. Much, however, remains to be done. Parole boards have engaged persons trained in psychology and social work to help convicts on parole or probation adjust to society. Various states have agencies with programs of reform and rehabilitation for both adult and juvenile offenders.
Many communities have initiated concerted attacks on the conditions that breed crime. Criminologists recognize that both adult and juvenile crime stem chiefly from the breakdown of traditional social norms and controls, resulting from industrialization, urbanization, increasing physical and social mobility, and the effects of economic crises and wars. Most criminologists believe that effective crime prevention requires community agencies and programs to provide the guidance and control performed, ideally and traditionally, by the family and by the force of social custom. Although the crime rate has not drastically diminished as a result of these efforts, it is hoped that the extension and improvement of all valid approaches to prevention of crime eventually will reduce its incidence.

Результаты (русский) 1:

(1) различные подходы исправительных учреждений разработана в свете теории причинности. Старых богословских и моралистических теорий призвали наказание как возмездие обществом для зла. Это отношение, действительно, по-прежнему существует. 19-го века британский юрист и философ Джереми Бентам пытался сделать более точно соответствовать преступление наказание. Бентам считает, что удовольствие может быть измерена против боли во всех областях человеческого выбора и поведения и что человеческое счастье могут быть достигнуты через такие гедонической исчисление. Он утверждал, что преступники будут воздерживаться от преступления, если они знали, в частности, страдания, которые они будут испытывать, если поймали. Бентам поэтому призывает определенные, негибкой наказания для каждого класса преступности; боль казни перевешивают лишь слегка удовольствие от успеха в преступлении; она будет превышать его достаточно для того, чтобы действовать как сдерживающий фактор, но не столько как сумма бессмысленное жестокости. Это так называемые исчисление удовольствий и боли был основан на психологических постулатов больше не принимаются.(2) The Bentham approach was in part superseded in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by a movement known as the neoclassical school. This school, rejecting fixed punishments, proposed that sentences vary with the particular circumstances of a crime, such as the age, intellectual level, and emotional state of the offender; the motives and other conditions that may have incited to crime; and the offender's past record and chances of rehabilitation. The influence of the neoclassical school led to the development of such concepts as grades of crime and punishment, indeterminate sentences, and the limited responsibility of young or mentally deficient offenders.(3) At about the same time, the so-called Italian school stressed measures for preventing crime rather than punishing it. Members of this school argued that individuals are shaped by forces beyond their control and therefore cannot be held fully responsible for their crimes. They urged birth control, censorship of pornographic literature, and other actions designed to mitigate the influences contributing to crime. The Italian school has had a lasting influence on the thinking of present-day criminologists.(4) The modern approach to the treatment of criminals owes most to psychiatric and case-study methods. Much continues to be learned from offenders who have been placed on probation or parole and whose behavior, both in and out of prison, has been studied intensively. The contemporary scientific attitude is that criminals are individual personalities and that their rehabilitation can be brought about only through individual treatment. Increased juvenile crime has aroused public concern and has stimulated study of the emotional disturbances that foster delinquency. This growing understanding of delinquency has contributed to the understanding of criminals of all ages.(5) During recent years, crime has been under attack from many directions. The treatment and rehabilitation of criminals has improved in many areas. The emotional problems of convicts have been studied and efforts have been made to help such offenders. Much, however, remains to be done. Parole boards have engaged persons trained in psychology and social work to help convicts on parole or probation adjust to society. Various states have agencies with programs of reform and rehabilitation for both adult and juvenile offenders.Многие общины начали совместные нападения на условиях, способствующих совершению преступлений. Криминалисты признать это как взрослых, так и несовершеннолетних преступление стволовых, главным образом за счет развала традиционных социальных норм и контроля, в результате индустриализации, урбанизации, повышения физической и социальной мобильности и последствия экономических кризисов и войн. Большинство криминологи считают, что эффективное предупреждение преступности требует общинных учреждений и программ для обеспечения руководства и контроля, идеально и традиционно семьи и в силу социальных обычай. Хотя уровень преступности не имеет резко сократилось в результате этих усилий, остается надеяться, что расширение и совершенствование всех действительных подходов к предупреждению преступности в конечном итоге приведет к сокращению ее масштабов.

Результаты (русский) 3:

(1) в различных исправительных подходы, разработанные в результате причинно - следственная связь теории.старая богословская и морализаторская теории призвал наказания в качестве возмездия со стороны общества зло.такой подход, по сути, все еще существует.19 - го века британский юрист и философ джереми бентам сделать наказание более точно соответствовать преступлению.бентам считает, что удовольствие можно измерять боль во всех областях права выбора и поведения, и что человеческого счастья, могут быть достигнуты путем таких гедонической исчисление.он заявил, что преступников будут воздерживаться от преступности, если они знали, в частности, страдания, они бы опыт, если поймают.бентам обращается к определенным, негибкая наказания для каждой категории преступлений;