THE HISTORY OF BRIDGE AND TUNNEL BU

THE HISTORY OF BRIDGE AND TUNNEL BUILDING

1. An outstanding statesman once said in his speech, “There can be little doubt that in many ways the story of bridge-building is the story of civilization. By it we can readily measure an important part of a people’s progress.” Great rivers are important means of communication, for in many parts of the world they have been, and still are, the chief roads. But they are also barriers to communication, and have always been concerned with finding ways to cross them.

2. For hundreds of years men have built bridges over fast-flowing rivers or deep and rocky canyons. Early man probably got the idea of a bridge from a tree fallen across a steam. From this, at a later stage, a bridge on a very simple bracket or cantilever principle was evolved. Timber beams were embedded into the banks on each side of the river with their ends extending over the water. These made simple supports for a central beam reaching across from one bracket to the other. Bridges of this type are still used in Japan, and in India. A simple bridge on the suspension principle was made by early man by means of ropes, and is still used in countries such as Tibet. Two parallel ropes suspended from rocks or trees on each bank of the river, with a platform of woven mats laid across them, made a secure crossing. Further ropes as handrails were added. When the Spaniards reached South America, they found that the Incas of Peru used suspension bridges made of six strong cables, four of which supported a platform and two served as rails.

3. All these bridge made possible crossings only over narrow rivers. The type за temporary floating bridge, the pontoon bridge, has been used for military purposes; military engineers can construct a temporary bridge on this principle, able to carry all the heavy equipment of a modern army, in an extremely short time.

The idea of driving wooden piles into the bed of the river in order to support a platform was put into practice 3,500 years ago. This is the basis of the ‘trestle’ or pile bridge which makes it possible to build a wider crossing easier for the transport of animals and goods.

4. With the coming of the railway in the 19th century there was a great demand for bridges, and the railways had capital for building them. The first railway were built of stone or brick. In many places long lines of viaducts were built to carry railways; for instance, there are miles of brick viaducts supporting railways to London.

The next important development in bridge-building was the use of iron and, lather, steel. The first iron bridge crossed the river Severn in Great Britain.

The idea of a drawbridge, a bridge hinged so that it can be lifted by chains from inside to prevent passage, is an old one. Some St. Petersburg bridges were built on this principle.

A modern bridge probably demands greater skill from designer and builder than any other civil engineering project. Many things should be taken into consideration, and these may vary widely according to local conditions. In deciding what type of bridge is most suitable the designer has to consider the type and weight of the traffic, and width and depth of the gap to be bridged, the nature of the foundations and the method of erecting the bridge. The designer has to calculate carefully how the various loads would be distributed and to decide which building materials are more suitable for carrying these loads.

Tunnels

5. Tunnelling is difficult, expensive and dangerous engineering work. Tunnels are built to provide direct automobile or railway routes through mountain ranges, under or over rivers. They can also provide underground channels for water, sewage or oil. Before the 19th century men had not acquired enough skill in engineering to carry out extensive tunneling. Tunnels, however, were known in ancient times. They were, for instance, driven into the rock under the Pyramids of Egypt, and the Romans built one in Rome for their chief drain, parts of which still remain. One of the earliest tunnels known was made in Babylon. It passed under the Euphrates river, and was of arched brickwork being 12 feet high and 15 feet wide.

Other ancient tunnels were built for water supply and for drainage.

6. Modern tunnels are often very long and deep. The Simplon Tunnel on the France-to-Italy railway, for example, is 12 miles long and in one place the peaks of the Alps rise over 6,000 feet above it. Some tunnels are over 50 feet in diameter. Many are circular in cross-section. Other are horseshoe-shaped, with a level floor on which it is easy to lay permanent roads and railways.

Tunnel Under Channel

7. Connecting the Isles of Great Britain to mainland Europe is a fantasy that can be dated back nearly 200 years.

We can name very few projects against which there existed a deeper and more powerful prejudice than the construction of a railway tunnel between Dover and Calais.

The objections have been cultural, political and, of course, military. The British government objected to the scheme mainly because they thought that the enemy could easily invade England through such a tunnel.

The first suggestion to construct a tunnel came from Napoleon in 1800. His engineers even drafted a tunnel plan, but Britain and France were at war at that time.

In 1988 the question of a Channel Tunnel was studied afresh by a group of French and British engineers and work actually began. They agreed to start boring for the Eurotunnel on both English and French Coasts.

The Tunnel runs under the sea through a layer of dense chalk which is know to be free of cracks and allows water to penetrate it slowly.

The work proceeded very quickly and was successfully completed in about six years. The Tunnel was opened to traffic on May 7, 1944.

Two main tunnels, with service tunnel between, carry one-way rail traffic.

8. Original estimate was 7.2 billion dollars at current exchange rates, but cost to date is 13.1 billion dollars shared between Britain, France and other investors. So far project is not quite profitable and still needs more investments.

Cars and trucks carried by rail make crossing in 35 minutes, about an hour less than by ferry. Passengers remain in their vehicles.

The Tunnel personnel does its best to make passengers feel comfortable and safe during the crossing. But as it was mentioned by the commercial director of the Tunnel, they still have many serious problems and one of them is security. Nevertheless, the authorities are sure to be able to solve all the problems successfully.

Результаты (русский) 1:

ИСТОРИЯ МОСТА И ТУННЕЛЯ ЗДАНИЯ1. выдающийся государственный деятель однажды сказал в своей речи, «там может быть мало сомнений, что во многих отношениях История мостов История цивилизации. Им мы можем легко измерить важной частью прогресса людей.» Великие реки являются важным средством коммуникации, для во многих частях мира они были и до сих пор, начальника дороги. Но они также коммуникационных барьеров и всегда были связана с поиском путей пересекать их.2. для сотни лет, мужчины построили мосты над быстрыми реками или глубокие и скалистых каньонов. Древний человек, вероятно, получил идею моста из дерева упал через паром. Исходя из этого на более позднем этапе, эволюционировали мост на очень простой принцип кронштейн или консольные. Деревянные балки были встроены в банки на каждой стороне реки с их концы, расширение над водой. Эти сделали простой подставки для центрального луча, достигнув напротив один кронштейн к другой. Мосты этого типа по-прежнему используются в Японии и в Индии. Простой мост на принципе подвеска был сделан в начале человек с помощью веревки и до сих пор используется в таких странах, как Тибет. Два параллельных тросов, отстранены от скал или деревья на каждом берегу реки, с платформой тканые коврики, проложили через них, сделал безопасного пересечения. Далее, канаты, как поручни были добавлены. Когда испанцы достигли Южной Америки, они обнаружили, что инки Перу используется висячих мостов из шести сильный кабелей, четыре из которых поддерживает платформу и два служил рельсы.3. все эти мост сделал возможным пересечения только через узкие реки. Тип за временный плавучий мост, понтонный мост, был использован в военных целях; военные инженеры могут построить временный мост на этом принципе, способны нести все тяжелой техники современной армии, в предельно короткие сроки.Идея вождения деревянных свай в русло реки с целью поддержки платформы была введена в практику 3500 лет назад. Это основа «эстакады» или куча моста, который делает возможным построить более широкого скрещивания проще для перевозки животных и товаров.4. с приходом железной дороги в XIX веке был большой спрос на мосты и железные дороги были капитал для создания их. Первая железная дорога были построены из камня или кирпича. Во многих местах длинные линии виадуки были построены для железных дорог; к примеру есть миль кирпич виадуки, поддерживая железных дорог в Лондоне.Следующим важным событием в мостов было использование железа и, пена, сталь. Первый Железный мост пересекли реку Северн в Великобритании.Подъемный мост, мост откидной так, что он может быть поднят цепи от внутри предотвратить проход, идея старую. Некоторые Мосты Санкт-Петербурга были построены на этот принцип.Современный мост вероятно требует больше навыков от дизайнер и строитель чем любых других проектов гражданского строительства. Многие вещи должны быть приняты во внимание, и они могут широко варьироваться в зависимости от местных условий. В принятии решения, какой тип моста является наиболее подходящим дизайнер должен учитывать тип и вес трафика и ширина и глубина разрыв будет преодолен, характер основы и метод возведения мост. Дизайнер должен тщательно рассчитать, каким образом будут распределяться различных нагрузок и решить, какие строительные материалы лучше подходят для перевозки этих грузов.Туннели5. туннелирования является сложной, дорогостоящей и опасной инженерных работ. Тоннели строятся для предоставления прямой автомобильной или железной дороги через горные перевалы, под или над реками. Они могут также обеспечить подземные каналы для воды, сточных вод или нефти. До XIX века мужчины не получила достаточной квалификации в инженерной проводить обширные туннелирования. Туннели, однако, были известны в древние времена. Например, они отвезли в скале под пирамиды Египта, и римляне построили в Риме для их главный дренажный, части которого по-прежнему остаются. Один из известных ранних тоннелей было сделано в Вавилоне. Он прошел под реки Евфрат и арочной кладки, будучи 12 футов, высокие и 15 футов шириной.Другие древние туннели были построены за водоснабжение и дренаж.6. Modern tunnels are often very long and deep. The Simplon Tunnel on the France-to-Italy railway, for example, is 12 miles long and in one place the peaks of the Alps rise over 6,000 feet above it. Some tunnels are over 50 feet in diameter. Many are circular in cross-section. Other are horseshoe-shaped, with a level floor on which it is easy to lay permanent roads and railways.Tunnel Under Channel7. Connecting the Isles of Great Britain to mainland Europe is a fantasy that can be dated back nearly 200 years.We can name very few projects against which there existed a deeper and more powerful prejudice than the construction of a railway tunnel between Dover and Calais.The objections have been cultural, political and, of course, military. The British government objected to the scheme mainly because they thought that the enemy could easily invade England through such a tunnel.The first suggestion to construct a tunnel came from Napoleon in 1800. His engineers even drafted a tunnel plan, but Britain and France were at war at that time.In 1988 the question of a Channel Tunnel was studied afresh by a group of French and British engineers and work actually began. They agreed to start boring for the Eurotunnel on both English and French Coasts.The Tunnel runs under the sea through a layer of dense chalk which is know to be free of cracks and allows water to penetrate it slowly.The work proceeded very quickly and was successfully completed in about six years. The Tunnel was opened to traffic on May 7, 1944.Two main tunnels, with service tunnel between, carry one-way rail traffic.8. Original estimate was 7.2 billion dollars at current exchange rates, but cost to date is 13.1 billion dollars shared between Britain, France and other investors. So far project is not quite profitable and still needs more investments.Cars and trucks carried by rail make crossing in 35 minutes, about an hour less than by ferry. Passengers remain in their vehicles.The Tunnel personnel does its best to make passengers feel comfortable and safe during the crossing. But as it was mentioned by the commercial director of the Tunnel, they still have many serious problems and one of them is security. Nevertheless, the authorities are sure to be able to solve all the problems successfully.