Materials that are used for structu

Materials that are used for structural purposes should meet several requirements. In most cases it is important that they should be hard, durable, fire-resistant and easily fastened together.
The most commonly used materials are steel, concrete, stone, wood and brick. They differ in hardness, durability and fire-resistance.
Wood is the most ancient structural material. It is light, cheap and easy to work. But wood has certain disadvantages: it burns and decays.
Stone belongs to one of the oldest building materials used by man. It is characteristic of many properties. They are mechanical strength, compactness, porosity, sound and heat insulation and fire-resistance.
Bricks were known many thousands of years ago. They are examples of artificial building materials.
Concrete is referred to as one of the most important building materials. Concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, crushed stone and water.
Steel has come into general use with the development of industry. Its manufacture requires special equipment and skilled labor.
Plastics combine all the fine characteristics of a building material with good insulating properties. It is no wonder that architects and engineers have turned to them to add beauty to modern homes and offices.
All building materials are divided into three main groups:
1. Main building materials such as rocks and artificial stones, timber and metals.
2. Binding materials such as lime, gypsum and cement.
3. Secondary or auxiliary materials which are used for the interior parts of the buildings.
We use many building materials for bearing structures. Binding materials are used for making artificial stone and for joining different planes. For the interior finish of the buildings we use secondary materials.
Natural building materials are stone, sand, lime and timber. Cement, clay products and concrete are examples of artificial building materials.
2 Timber
Timber is the most ancient structural material. In comparison with steel timber is lighter, cheaper, easier to work and its mechanical properties are good. On the other hand, timber has certain disadvantages. First, it burns and is therefore unsuitable for fireproof buildings. Second, it decays.
At present an enormous amount of timber is employed for a vast number of purposes. In building timber is used too.
Timber is a name applied to the cut material derived from trees. Timber used for building purposes is divided into two groups: softwoods and hardwoods. Hardwoods are chiefly used for decorative purposes, as for paneling, veneering in furniture and some of them are selected for structural use because of their high strength and durability. In modern construction timber is often used for window and door frames, flooring, fences and gates, wall plates, for temporary buildings and unpainted internal woodwork.
Timber cannot be used for either carpenters' or joiners' work immediately it has been felled because of the large amount of sap which it contains. Elimination of this moisture increases the strength, durability and resilience of timber.
3 Stone
Stone has been used as a structural material since the earliest days.
Almost all famous buildings of classic times, of the medieval and
Renaissance periods and of the 18th and early 19th centuries were erected of stone masonry. In some places stone was used because of the scarcity of timber but in other places stone was preferred because of its durability.
The stones which are usually used for masonry work are as follows:
1. Granite is very hard, strong and durable. It is used particularly for basements, base courses, columns and steps and for the entire facades. Its colour may be grey, yellow, pink or deep red.
2. Sandstone is composed of grains of sand or quarts cemented together. Sandstones form one of the most valuable materials. The durability of sandstones depends very largely upon the cementing material. Thus, there are different kinds of sandstones. Many sandstones are exceptionally hard and are selected for steps, sills, etc. It is an excellent material for concrete aggregate.
3. Marble is a crystalline stone chiefly used for decorative purposes. White and black marbles are used for ornamental decoration where the beauty of the marble is shown to its best advantage.
4 Metals and concrete
All metals are divided into ferrous metals and non-ferrous metals. Ferrous metals include iron, steel and its alloys. Non-ferrous metals are metals and alloys the main component of which is not iron but some other good element. Metals, in general, and especially ferrous metals are of good importance in variations.
Metals possess the following properties:
1. All metals have specific metallic lustre.
2. They can be forged.
3. Metals can be pulled.
4. All metals except mercury are hard substances.
5. They can be melted.
6. In general, metals are good conductors of electricity.
These characteristics are possessed by all metals but the metals themselves differ from one another. Steel and cast iron are referred to the group of ferrous metals. Cast iron is the cheapest of the ferrous metals. It is chiefly used in building for compressed members of construction, as the supporting members. When an engineer designs a steelwork he must carefully consider that the steel frame and every part of it should safely carry all the loads imposed upon it. The steel framework must be carefully hidden in walls, floors and partitions. It is steel and metal that is employed as reinforcement in modern ferroconcrete structures. In the curriculum of the Institute there is a special course on metal structures.
Steel. There are different kinds of steel. Alloyed steel or special steel
is corrosion-resistant steel. This kind of steel is widely used in building. Stainless steel is also corrosion-resistant steel. It is used for cutlery, furnace parts, chemical plant equipment, valves, ball-bearings, etc.
Non-ferrous metals. Non-ferrous metals have the following characteristics: high electric and heat conductivity, high corrosion resistance, non-magnetic qualities, light weight.
Alumunium. This is the oldest and best known light metal. It is used in aircraft, automobile, chemical and some other industries.
Copper. Copper is the best conductor of electricity. There are different alloys with copper. An alloy of copper and tin is called bronze. This metal is often used for making various ornaments.
Buildings of reinforced concrete may be constructed with load-bearing walls or with a skeleton frame. According to the first method, the exterior walls are designed of sufficient strength to carry the loads of the girders, beams, floors and roofs which rest on them. The interior supports may consist also of load-bearing walls or of columns, but this method does not utilize the full potentialities of concrete. By the second method, the floors and roofs rest directly on exterior and interior columns or are carried on beams and girders which, in turn, rest on the columns. The walls and partitions are simple enclosures of brick or reinforced concrete supported by the beams and girders. Most concrete buildings of any size are now designed according to this second or skeleton frame method.
5 Cement: man's miracle mix
One of man's oldest building materials is finding its way into a lot of new places these days. Concrete, first discovered by the Romans, is now more widely used in construction than all other materials together.
The magic ingredient that makes concrete possible is cement, about which according to one expert more has been learnt in the past three decades than in the preceding 2000 years. Concrete is a synthetic stone which can be formed while soft into practically any shape the builder wants. Portland cement mixed with water is the paste that binds sand, gravel, clinker into an artificial rock that becomes harder as the years pass. Portland cement does not come from a place of that name; it was called Portland because Joseph Aspdin, the English builder who invented the first dependable, scientifically made cement about 1824, thought it resembled the rock excavated on the Isle of Portland on the Dorset Coast.
What's so new about cement after all these years? Several things. One item is "squeezed" concrete known technically as pre-stressed concrete. By giving concrete a big squeeze after it has hardened, builders can increase its elasticity ten times, so that it will bend under a heavy load without breaking. This is important in building bridges, viaducts and floors of large buildings.
The simplest way to pre-stress concrete is to put steel wires or rods in the concrete when it is poured.
An unusual American use of reinforced concrete is the floating highway bridge across Lake Washington. The depth of the lake made piers too expensive, so engineers built the bridge on hollow concrete pontoons anchored in place by steel cables. It is the longest pontoon bridge structure on Earth.
Until recently the aim of engineers was to make concrete with as few bubbles as possible. Now they have come up with a new concrete that has millions microscopic bubbles per cubic foot. It is made by adding an agent which foams to form the bubbles when the concrete is mixed. This concrete doesn't crack when freezing. The first "air bubble" roads were built many years ago. They have stood up under winter freezes so well that today this concrete is used for new road construction.
Another discovery is "soil cement". Several years ago road builders lacking funds found that they could mix cement with soil on the site of the road, wet it and compact it, then cover it with bitumen. The first road they built is still carrying traffic. There are miles of soil-cement secondary roads and streets today. Construction goes so fast that with modern equipment a road builder can complete a mile of soil cement road in one day.
Scientists are working on research into the behavior of cement and concrete under all kinds of conditions. Collaborating with engineers they are developing new ways

Результаты (украинский) 1:

Матеріали, які використовуються у цілях структури повинна відповідати ряду критеріїв. У більшості випадків дуже важливо, що вони повинні бути важко, довговічна, вогнестійка і легко кріпиться разом.Найбільш часто використовуваних матеріалів є сталь, бетон, каменю, дерева і цегли. Вони відрізняються жорсткості, міцності- та вогнестійкість.Деревина є самим древнім структурних матеріалів. Це легкий, дешевий і легко працювати. Але деревина має певні недоліки: він спалює і розпадів.Камінь належить до однієї з найстаріших будівельних матеріалів, які використовуються людиною. Це характерно багато властивостей. Вони механічною міцністю, компактністю, пористість, звукоізоляція та тепло- та вогнестійкість.Цеглини були відомі багато тисяч років тому. Вони є прикладами штучних будівельних матеріалів.Бетон, називається один з найбільш важливих будівельних матеріалів. Бетон є сумішшю цемент, пісок, щебінь каменем і водою.Сталі вступить до загального користування з розвитком промисловості. Її виготовлення вимагає спеціального обладнання та кваліфікованої робочої сили.Пластмаси об'єднати всі штрафу характеристики будівельного матеріалу з хороші електроізоляційні властивості. Це не дивно, що архітекторів та інженерів звернулися до них, щоб додати краси для сучасних будинках і офісах.Всі будівельні матеріали поділяються на три основні групи:1. Основні будівельні матеріали, такі як камені та скелі штучні, Лісоматеріали і металів.2. Палітурні матеріали, такі як вапна, гіпсу, цементу.3. вторинної або допоміжні матеріали, які використовуються для внутрішньої частини будівель.Ми використовуємо багато будівельних матеріалів для несучих конструкцій. Прив'язування матеріали використовуються для виготовлення штучного каменю, так і для приєднання до різних площинах. Для оздоблення салону будівель, ми використовуємо вторинний.Природних будівельних матеріалів є каменю, піску, вапна та ліс. Цемент, продукція з глини і бетону є прикладами штучних будівельних матеріалів.2 деревиниДеревина є самим древнім структурних матеріалів. У порівнянні з сталевих деревини, легше, дешевше, простіше працювати, і механічні властивості добре. З іншого боку, деревина має певні недоліки. По-перше, він спалює і тому непридатними для вогнетривкої будівель. По-друге, це розпадів.В даний час величезну кількість деревини зайняті величезна кількість цілей. У будівлі деревини використовують теж.Деревина є ім'я, застосовані до cut матеріал, що отримується з дерев. Деревина використовується для побудови цілей поділяється на дві групи: softwoods і листяних порід. Листяних порід головним чином використовуються в декоративних цілях, що стосується панелями, шпонування меблями, а деякі з них обираються для структурних використання через їх високу міцність і довговічність. У сучасному будівництві деревини часто використовується для віконні та дверні рами, підлоги, огорожі і ворота, стіна пластини для тимчасових будівель і незабарвлені внутрішні роботи по дереву.Timber cannot be used for either carpenters' or joiners' work immediately it has been felled because of the large amount of sap which it contains. Elimination of this moisture increases the strength, durability and resilience of timber.3 StoneStone has been used as a structural material since the earliest days.Almost all famous buildings of classic times, of the medieval andRenaissance periods and of the 18th and early 19th centuries were erected of stone masonry. In some places stone was used because of the scarcity of timber but in other places stone was preferred because of its durability.The stones which are usually used for masonry work are as follows:1. Granite is very hard, strong and durable. It is used particularly for basements, base courses, columns and steps and for the entire facades. Its colour may be grey, yellow, pink or deep red.2. Sandstone is composed of grains of sand or quarts cemented together. Sandstones form one of the most valuable materials. The durability of sandstones depends very largely upon the cementing material. Thus, there are different kinds of sandstones. Many sandstones are exceptionally hard and are selected for steps, sills, etc. It is an excellent material for concrete aggregate.3. Marble is a crystalline stone chiefly used for decorative purposes. White and black marbles are used for ornamental decoration where the beauty of the marble is shown to its best advantage.4 Metals and concreteAll metals are divided into ferrous metals and non-ferrous metals. Ferrous metals include iron, steel and its alloys. Non-ferrous metals are metals and alloys the main component of which is not iron but some other good element. Metals, in general, and especially ferrous metals are of good importance in variations.Metals possess the following properties:1. All metals have specific metallic lustre.2. They can be forged.3. Metals can be pulled.4. All metals except mercury are hard substances.5. They can be melted.6. In general, metals are good conductors of electricity.These characteristics are possessed by all metals but the metals themselves differ from one another. Steel and cast iron are referred to the group of ferrous metals. Cast iron is the cheapest of the ferrous metals. It is chiefly used in building for compressed members of construction, as the supporting members. When an engineer designs a steelwork he must carefully consider that the steel frame and every part of it should safely carry all the loads imposed upon it. The steel framework must be carefully hidden in walls, floors and partitions. It is steel and metal that is employed as reinforcement in modern ferroconcrete structures. In the curriculum of the Institute there is a special course on metal structures.Steel. There are different kinds of steel. Alloyed steel or special steelis corrosion-resistant steel. This kind of steel is widely used in building. Stainless steel is also corrosion-resistant steel. It is used for cutlery, furnace parts, chemical plant equipment, valves, ball-bearings, etc.Non-ferrous metals. Non-ferrous metals have the following characteristics: high electric and heat conductivity, high corrosion resistance, non-magnetic qualities, light weight.Alumunium. This is the oldest and best known light metal. It is used in aircraft, automobile, chemical and some other industries.Copper. Copper is the best conductor of electricity. There are different alloys with copper. An alloy of copper and tin is called bronze. This metal is often used for making various ornaments.Buildings of reinforced concrete may be constructed with load-bearing walls or with a skeleton frame. According to the first method, the exterior walls are designed of sufficient strength to carry the loads of the girders, beams, floors and roofs which rest on them. The interior supports may consist also of load-bearing walls or of columns, but this method does not utilize the full potentialities of concrete. By the second method, the floors and roofs rest directly on exterior and interior columns or are carried on beams and girders which, in turn, rest on the columns. The walls and partitions are simple enclosures of brick or reinforced concrete supported by the beams and girders. Most concrete buildings of any size are now designed according to this second or skeleton frame method.5 Cement: man's miracle mix
One of man's oldest building materials is finding its way into a lot of new places these days. Concrete, first discovered by the Romans, is now more widely used in construction than all other materials together.
The magic ingredient that makes concrete possible is cement, about which according to one expert more has been learnt in the past three decades than in the preceding 2000 years. Concrete is a synthetic stone which can be formed while soft into practically any shape the builder wants. Portland cement mixed with water is the paste that binds sand, gravel, clinker into an artificial rock that becomes harder as the years pass. Portland cement does not come from a place of that name; it was called Portland because Joseph Aspdin, the English builder who invented the first dependable, scientifically made cement about 1824, thought it resembled the rock excavated on the Isle of Portland on the Dorset Coast.
What's so new about cement after all these years? Several things. One item is "squeezed" concrete known technically as pre-stressed concrete. By giving concrete a big squeeze after it has hardened, builders can increase its elasticity ten times, so that it will bend under a heavy load without breaking. This is important in building bridges, viaducts and floors of large buildings.
The simplest way to pre-stress concrete is to put steel wires or rods in the concrete when it is poured.
An unusual American use of reinforced concrete is the floating highway bridge across Lake Washington. The depth of the lake made piers too expensive, so engineers built the bridge on hollow concrete pontoons anchored in place by steel cables. It is the longest pontoon bridge structure on Earth.
Until recently the aim of engineers was to make concrete with as few bubbles as possible. Now they have come up with a new concrete that has millions microscopic bubbles per cubic foot. It is made by adding an agent which foams to form the bubbles when the concrete is mixed. This concrete doesn't crack when freezing. The first "air bubble" roads were built many years ago. They have stood up under winter freezes so well that today this concrete is used for new road construction.
Another discovery is "soil cement". Several years ago road builders lacking funds found that they could mix cement with soil on the site of the road, wet it and compact it, then cover it with bitumen. The first road they built is still carrying traffic. There are miles of soil-cement secondary roads and streets today. Construction goes so fast that with modern equipment a road builder can complete a mile of soil cement road in one day.
Scientists are working on research into the behavior of cement and concrete under all kinds of conditions. Collaborating with engineers they are developing new ways

Результаты (украинский) 3:

Матеріалів, які використовуються для структурних цілей повинна відповідати декілька вимог. У більшості випадків це важливо, що вони повинні бути твердий, зносостійкий, вогнетривкої та легко прикріпити разом.
найчастіше використовуються матеріали сталь, бетон, камінь, дерево, цегли. Вони відрізняються по твердості, довговічність і вогнестійкості.
дерева, прадавній структурних матеріалу. Це світло,Дешеві та зручно працювати. А ось дерево має певні недоліки: воно спалює і розкладає.
Камінь належить одному з найстаріших будівельних матеріалів використовується людиною. Це характерно для багатьох властивостями. Вони механічна міцність, компактність, пухкостей, звуку та теплоізоляцію вогнестійкості.
цеглою були відомі багато тисяч років тому. Вони є приклади штучних будівельних матеріалів.
Бетонні називають одним з найважливіших будівельних матеріалів. Бетон являє собою суміш цемент, пісок, щебінь із водою.
сталі kerry загального користування з розвитком промисловості. Його виготовлення вимагає спеціального обладнання та кваліфіковані трудові ресурси.
Пластмаси комбайна всі дрібні риси будівельний матеріал з гарні ізоляційні властивості.Зовсім не дивно, що архітекторів та інженерів перетворилися в них додати красу сучасні будинки та офісів.
всіх будівельних матеріалів, поділяються на три основні групи:
1. Основні будівельні матеріали, такі як скелях і штучного каменю, деревини та металів.
2. Обов'язкові матеріали, такі як лайма, гіпсу та цементу.
3. Середня або допоміжних матеріалів, які використовуються для деталей інтер'єру будинків.