& Syntax: how accurately can the si

& Syntax: how accurately can the signs be transmitted to convey design information within an information processing system? & Semantics: how accurately do the signs transmitted interpret the meaning intended and desired by the sender? & Praxis: how effectively do the signs influence the receiver of the information?
These three stages merge gradually into one another and alternate constantly with one another. The process is not linear, with a fixed sequence of steps, but cyclic, with continuous feedback.
From function to form or vice versa?
Roozenburg and Eekels (1991) saw design as a thought process in which the same cycle of activities is repeated over and over again: observation, supposition, expectation, checking and evaluation. They referred back to the empirical cycle proposed by De Groot (1969), who distinguished between observation, induction, deduction, testing and evaluation, and believed that in essence the design process reasons from function to form. Design is a means (M) to achieve an end (E), which is to provide the function envisaged. The end is what matters. Determining the spatial and architectural means best capable of achieving that end is the next step. Expressed as a formula, M¼f(E). De Jong (1993) took the opposite approach, arguing that design should be based on research; designers should look for possible solutions that would then be examined to establish their desirability. In urban design, for example, designers should devise and record new forms capable of serving social goals. Various means would be suggested and then examined one by one to see what they could achieve. Comparison with goals is therefore just as relevant here, but by definition the goals are not formulated in advance and are less stringent. It might be said that the goals are derived from the means: expressed as a formula, E¼f(M). Goal-directed design starts from a programme of requirements: meansdirected design starts from an inventory of the features available and the way they interconnect (topography, the nature of the location and its morphological typology). The next step is to establish the functions for which the location is suitable. Form by itself gives no indication of probable function, only of possible function, e.g. natural or recreational. What De Jong was trying to do was to find a set of tools to generate hypotheses and design new possibilities, to add to the range of tools used in the empirical sciences, which are primarily concerned with determining probabilities.
One process with many faces?
One might well ask whether there are really only two choices possible – design from end to means or from means to end. From the extensive literature on design methodology one could conclude that designers are constantly switching between general and detail, problem and solution, function and form and aims and means. As a consequence, any suggestion of tribal conflict is unnecessary, being based on an incorrect understanding of one another’s methods. In essence the difference between the two approaches is one of degree rather than kind. Even the more analytical, goal-directed designers are happy to work from a provisional general solution. It is true that the means-directed approach may skip the first analytical phase, but the provisional design solution will be subject to cyclic feedback between analyses and evaluations to achieve an increasingly suitable result. It should also be realised that despite the differences in opinion amongst theorists and architects about the ‘correct’ sequence for analysis, synthesis and evaluation, these three steps can be found in every design process. Design always involves analysis, synthesis and evaluation, in the creative stage or in the structuring stage, when generating solutions or evaluating solutions. In the words of Donald Scho ¨n (1991) ‘Designers are reflective practitioners’: Thinking and acting, generating ideas and making choices, constantly alternate with one another.
4.5 Design methods
A method is a fixed, properly thought out way of acting to achieve a particular goal. Eekhout (1998) speaks of a specific, rational, general, observable method of working, in this case in the process of design. The word ‘methodology’ is also used instead of ‘method’, although a methodology is in fact a collection of methods and techniques. The word ‘strategy’ is also used, it is defined by Roozenburg and Eekels (1991) as a broad outline of the way in which people aim to achieve a particular goal, without laying down the method of working in any detail. Goals and strategy combine to form part of policy. According to Foque ´, design methods contribute to increasing the capacity of the designer to structure, think creatively and process information. Foque ´ believed that design methods should have the effect of deepening one’s understanding (process analysis and problem analysis), stimulating participation (information and communication) and have a definite effect on the design environment (design and building). As Eekhout saw it, intuitive working is not methodical. After all, ‘intuitive’ implies uncontrollable and inexplicable, and therefore dependent on good luck. It therefore fails to satisfy the elementary requirement for a methodical approach, that the various steps must be formulated explicitly. Besides the intuitive

Результаты (русский) 1:

& Синтаксис: как точно может признаки передаваться передать дизайн информации в рамках системы обработки информации? & Семантика: как точно признаки передаются интерпретировать смысл предназначены и желанию отправителя? & Praxis: как эффективно признаки влияния приемник информации?Эти три этапа постепенно сливаются друг с другом и постоянно чередуются друг с другом. Процесс не является линейной, с фиксированной последовательности шагов, но циклических, с непрерывной обратной связи.Из функции в форме или наоборот?Roozenburg and Eekels (1991) saw design as a thought process in which the same cycle of activities is repeated over and over again: observation, supposition, expectation, checking and evaluation. They referred back to the empirical cycle proposed by De Groot (1969), who distinguished between observation, induction, deduction, testing and evaluation, and believed that in essence the design process reasons from function to form. Design is a means (M) to achieve an end (E), which is to provide the function envisaged. The end is what matters. Determining the spatial and architectural means best capable of achieving that end is the next step. Expressed as a formula, M¼f(E). De Jong (1993) took the opposite approach, arguing that design should be based on research; designers should look for possible solutions that would then be examined to establish their desirability. In urban design, for example, designers should devise and record new forms capable of serving social goals. Various means would be suggested and then examined one by one to see what they could achieve. Comparison with goals is therefore just as relevant here, but by definition the goals are not formulated in advance and are less stringent. It might be said that the goals are derived from the means: expressed as a formula, E¼f(M). Goal-directed design starts from a programme of requirements: meansdirected design starts from an inventory of the features available and the way they interconnect (topography, the nature of the location and its morphological typology). The next step is to establish the functions for which the location is suitable. Form by itself gives no indication of probable function, only of possible function, e.g. natural or recreational. What De Jong was trying to do was to find a set of tools to generate hypotheses and design new possibilities, to add to the range of tools used in the empirical sciences, which are primarily concerned with determining probabilities.One process with many faces?One might well ask whether there are really only two choices possible – design from end to means or from means to end. From the extensive literature on design methodology one could conclude that designers are constantly switching between general and detail, problem and solution, function and form and aims and means. As a consequence, any suggestion of tribal conflict is unnecessary, being based on an incorrect understanding of one another’s methods. In essence the difference between the two approaches is one of degree rather than kind. Even the more analytical, goal-directed designers are happy to work from a provisional general solution. It is true that the means-directed approach may skip the first analytical phase, but the provisional design solution will be subject to cyclic feedback between analyses and evaluations to achieve an increasingly suitable result. It should also be realised that despite the differences in opinion amongst theorists and architects about the ‘correct’ sequence for analysis, synthesis and evaluation, these three steps can be found in every design process. Design always involves analysis, synthesis and evaluation, in the creative stage or in the structuring stage, when generating solutions or evaluating solutions. In the words of Donald Scho ¨n (1991) ‘Designers are reflective practitioners’: Thinking and acting, generating ideas and making choices, constantly alternate with one another.4.5 Design methods
A method is a fixed, properly thought out way of acting to achieve a particular goal. Eekhout (1998) speaks of a specific, rational, general, observable method of working, in this case in the process of design. The word ‘methodology’ is also used instead of ‘method’, although a methodology is in fact a collection of methods and techniques. The word ‘strategy’ is also used, it is defined by Roozenburg and Eekels (1991) as a broad outline of the way in which people aim to achieve a particular goal, without laying down the method of working in any detail. Goals and strategy combine to form part of policy. According to Foque ´, design methods contribute to increasing the capacity of the designer to structure, think creatively and process information. Foque ´ believed that design methods should have the effect of deepening one’s understanding (process analysis and problem analysis), stimulating participation (information and communication) and have a definite effect on the design environment (design and building). As Eekhout saw it, intuitive working is not methodical. After all, ‘intuitive’ implies uncontrollable and inexplicable, and therefore dependent on good luck. It therefore fails to satisfy the elementary requirement for a methodical approach, that the various steps must be formulated explicitly. Besides the intuitive

Результаты (русский) 3:

& синтаксиса: как точно могу знаки передаваться передать информацию о конструкции в систему обработки информации?& семантика: как точно делать знаки передано интерпретировать смысл и желанию отправителя?& практики: насколько эффективно делать знаки на получателя информации?
эти три этапа слияния постепенно в друг друга и заместители постоянно друг с другом.этот процесс не является линейным, с фиксированной последовательность шагов, но циклические, с постоянной обратной связи.
из функция формы или наоборот?
розенбург и eekels (1991) видел, как дизайн, как думал, процесс, в котором тот же цикл мероприятий, повторяется снова и снова: наблюдения, предположения, ожидание,проверки и оценки.они сослались на эмпирические цикла, предложенный де гроот (1969), который проводится различие между наблюдения, приема, вычет, испытания и оценки, и считает, что, в сущности, процесс разработки причин, функция формы.дизайн - это средства (м) с тем, чтобы положить конец (е), который заключается в том, чтобы выполнять предусмотренные.в конце - вот что важно.определения пространственного и архитектурных означает лучший способный достижения этой цели - это следующий шаг.мнение, как формула, м - 1 / 4 f (e).де йонг (1993) принял противоположного подхода, утверждая, что схема должна основываться на научных исследований; дизайнеры должны искать возможные решения, которые затем будут рассмотрены, установить их целесообразность.в городском строительстве, например,дизайнеры должны разработать и регистрировать новые формы, способный служить социальных целей.различные средства будут предложены и затем изучил по одному, чтобы понять, что они могли бы достичь.по сравнению с целей является, таким образом, как соответствующие здесь, но по определению целей не сформулирована заранее и являются менее строгими.можно сказать, что цели взяты из средств: в формулу,E ¼ F (м).цели направлены дизайн начинается с программой требования: meansdirected дизайн исходит из перечня функций, доступных и тем, как они взаимодействуют между собой (топографии, характер расположения и морфологических типологии).следующий шаг заключается в том, чтобы определить функции, которые возложены на месте.формы сами по себе не указывается, вероятно, функцию,