Defining public administrationPubli

Defining public administration
Public administration – complex political process involving the authoritative implementation of legitimated policy choices. Whether in the negative or positive sense, public administration is policy making, public administrators are policy makers.
Macro-administration: much of the policy-making activities of PA is done by large, specialized governmental agencies. Some of them are mostly involved with policy formulation, for example, the Parliament or Congress.
Micro-administration: numerous profit and nonprofit agencies, banks and hospitals, district and city governments.

Historical overview of public administration
Ancient empires are all organized and maintained political rule over wide areas and large populations by the use of quite a sophisticated* administrative apparatus and more or less skilled administrative functionaries. It was a system of favoritism and patronage, which is based on personal preferment.
Modern administrative system is based on objective norms (laws, rules and regulations) rather than on favoritism. It is a system of offices rather than officers. Bureaucracy does not die when its members die.
*Sophisticated – изощренный, утонченный, лишенный простоты.

Business management and public administration
In the 1880s were worked out principles of scientific business management and people were trained to follow them.
Successful business was seen as the model for the proper* management of government. And scholars started to see PA as a field of business, business, because management of all organizations in both the fields involves planning; organizing; staffing, training; decision-making; coordinating; budgeting, accomplishing goals.
There is difference between administration of business (private organization) and administration of public organizations:
• studies of public affairs will have to take into account not only management subjects but also the special environment in which the public servant has to live and which is the mix of administration, policy making, and politics.
• public organizations are more dependent on government allocations, more constrained by law, more exposed to political influences, and more difficult to evaluate than business organizations.
* Proper – должный, присущий.

Public Administration as an Academic Discipline
The method of case study was borrowed from business schools and applied to public administration. It was a prescriptive method and it told the student what he “ought to do” and what he “should not do” in specific situations of managing of public agencies.
In the 1950s organization theory was formed, and it helps to understand the nature of human organizations.
Comparative administration was focused on the developing nations and the analysis of “transitional societies”. There were detailed case-by-case examinations of administrative situations in both the developing countries and the older, established bureaucracies of the industrialized world.

Organization theory. Organization as bureaucracy, a dynamic change and human relations.
Organization theory: public organizations are commonly pictured as large mazes that employ bureaucrats to create red tape; private organizations are viewed to be run by hard-nosed managers who worry about profit and consumers.
Organization as bureaucracy: bureaucracy is a dominant form of any administration. Its defined as organizations that:
• Large;
• Hierarchical in structure;
• Provide each employee with a clearly defined role;
• Decisions base on impersonal rules;
• Hire employees taking into account their skills.
Organization as a dynamic change: public and private organizations have a dilemma – the need for both stability and change. Forces of stability are stronger in public organizations.
Organization as human relations
Individuals bring to organizations a complex mix of fundamental and highest spiritual needs. To attract and keep people organizations must take into account individual needs and motivation and satisfy them.

Organization as a structure of subgroups and cultural product
Formal groups (departments, committees) are identified and selected by organizational leaders, and their major characteristics are organizational legitimacy and task orientation.
Informal groups (for example, sport groups) are not created by management. People in these groups get together to share common interests, not to work, their activities in them (supporting friends) have.
Organizations are also cultural products.
The concept of culture is difficult to define. But when comparing organizations in different countries, their cultural differences are extremely vivid and important. Despite similar work and procedures, police departments, for example, in India, Germany and Japan differ greatly. Offering a small gift to a policeman may be considered corruption in one nation and a sign of respect in another.

Public Administration personnel. Role types: political executives, desktop administrators
A role is a predictable set of expectations and behaviors associated with an office or position. Role overload exists when the demands of one role make it difficult to fulfill the demands of others.
Five role-types – the political executive, desktop administrator, professional, street-level bureaucrat, and policy entrepreneur.
Political executives occupy the top of public organizations. They are advisors for selected officials. Political executives are also policy makers, top-level administrators. They are legally responsible for implementing policy. Political executives are political appointees.
Desktop administrators are career civil servants. They are middle managers and spends days filled with memoranda and meetings. They also guide policy intentions into policy actions that actually change, for better or worse, people’s life. They may be reassigned to less important jobs of equal rank if they lose favor with political executives.

Professionals. Street-level bureaucrats. Policy entrepreneurs.
The work of public organizations depends on professionals and more and more professionals are involved in public administration. They receive standard specific training that ends with certification and learn values and norms of behavior. The work of professionals involves applying their general knowledge to the specific case and requires considerable autonomy and flexibility.
Street-level bureaucrats (social workers, police officers) are at the bottom or near the bottom of public organizations, who deal with people. Street-level bureaucrats are also policy-makers. They often decide what policies to implement and they may change the policy while implementing it.
The policy entrepreneur is generally considered to be the charismatic person at the top, though they can exist at all levels of an organization. They are strong managers. The role requires conceptual leadership, strategic planning, and political activism.
Personnel administration and human resources management.
As people are considered the most important resources that an organization has, personnel administration nowadays is more common called human resources management. More attention now is paid to the general wellbeing of all employees and their safety in the work place.
Both HR management and PA have many things in common: their activities refer to the areas of recruiting, selecting, promoting, and terminating of personnel and employee training.
The recruitment starts after jobs have been created (finding people to fill those jobs).
The process of examination starts when applications have been received. It is not only a pencil-and-paper test. It also may be oral examination, particularly those for which communication skills are especially important.
The new employee is likely to serve a probationary period, often six months, but few employees are, in fact, dismissed during this period.
The evaluation of employee performance is a further personnel function. Recently, the trend has been to formalize rating schemes and to regularize feedback to employees. In jobs where this is not possible, supervisors are encouraged to judge performance as accurately as possible using impressionistic techniques. Such evaluation can protect employees from capricious actions of a subjective supervisor.
Government is deeply involved with the further education and training of the employees. Many universities, in cooperation with government agencies, have developed special programs for public employees.

Transactional and transformational leaders.
Leadership is the direction and guiding of other participants in the organization.
Transactional leaders exchange rewards for services. They give their subordinates the direction, support, and confidence to fulfill their role expectations. They also help subordinates understand and satisfy their own needs and desires. They are good managers.
Transformational leadership is more dramatic. Transformational leaders change the relationship of the subordinate and the organization. They encourage subordinates to go well beyond their original commitments and expectations. These leaders have the ability to reach the souls of others to raise human consciousness. They raise the level of awareness and encourage people to look beyond their self-interest.

The leadership traits and leadership ingredients.
Over many years, investigators have hoped to identify leadership traits. The following classification of the leadership traits is suggested:
1. capacity* (intelligence, verbal facility, originality, judgment);
2. achievement (scholarship, knowledge, athletic accomplishments);
3. responsibility (dependability, initiative, persistence, aggressiveness, self-confidence, desire to excel);
4. participation (activity, sociability, cooperation, adaptability, humor);
5. status (socioeconomic position, popularity).
Yet this list is not very helpful. Particular traits are neither necessary nor

Результаты (русский) 3:

определение государственного управлениягосударственной администрации – сложного политического процесса с участием авторитетных осуществление в политический выбор.как негативные или позитивные чувства, государственной администрации является выработка политики, государственные служащие, политики.макро - администрация: значительная часть политической деятельности па осуществляется крупных специализированных правительственных учреждений.некоторые из них были в основном связаны с разработкой политики, например, в парламенте или конгресс.микро - администрация: многочисленные прибыли и некоммерческие учреждения, банки, больницы, районные и городские власти.исторический обзор государственного управлениядревние империи все организовано и сохранить политическую власть над обширным районам и крупных групп населения с помощью довольно сложные * административный аппарат и более или менее квалифицированных административных служащих.это была система, фаворитизм и покровительство, которое основано на личной подачи.современные системы управления, основано на объективных норм (законов, правил и положений, а не на фаворитизм.это система управления, а не офицеры.бюрократия не умирает, когда его члены умереть.* сложный – изощренный, утонченный, лишенный простоты.вопросы управления и государственной администрациив 1880 - е годы были разработаны принципы научного менеджмента и люди были обучены следовать за ними.успешный бизнес, рассматривается в качестве модели за надлежащее управление правительства.и ученые начали видеть, па в области бизнеса, бизнес, потому что управление всеми организациями в обеих областях включает планирование; организацию; кадры, обучение; принятия решений; координация; составление бюджета, ориентированного на конкретные результаты, достижение целей.есть разница между администрацией предприятия (частные организации) и управления общественными организациями:• исследования государственных дел будет учитывать не только вопросы управления, но и особые условия, в которых государственный служащий должен жить и который является сочетание управления, разработки политики и политики.• общественные организации в большей степени зависят от государственных ассигнований, более ограничена законом, более подвержены политическому влиянию, и труднее оценить, чем бизнес - организаций.* надлежащее – должный, присущий.государственная администрация как научной дисциплиныметод исследования была заимствована из бизнес - школы и применяется к государственной администрации.это обязательный метод, и он сказал, что он "должен сделать студент", и то, что он "не должны делать" в конкретных ситуациях управления государственными учреждениями.в 1950 - х годах теория организации был сформирован, и это помогает понять характер прав организаций.сравнительные администрации был сосредоточен на развивающихся странах и анализ "переходный период".есть в каждом конкретном случае подробной проверки административной ситуации как в развивающихся странах и пожилых, созданной структуры от промышленно развитых стран.теория организации.организация как бюрократии, динамичных изменений, и человеческие отношения.теория организации: общественные организации, как правило, представляла, как крупные лабиринты, что работу чиновников для создания бюрократии; частные организации рассматриваются для запуска расчетливые менеджеров, которые беспокоятся о прибыли и потребителей.организация, как бюрократия: бюрократия является доминирующей формой любой администрации.ее определяется как организации, которые:• большая;• иерархическую структуру;• обеспечить каждому работнику, с четко определенными роль;• решения на базе безликие правил;• работу сотрудников с учетом их навыки.организация в качестве динамичных изменений: государственных и частных организаций, стоит перед дилеммой – необходимость стабильности и климата.силы стабильности сильнее в общественных организаций.организация, как отношения между людьмилиц привлечь к организации сложный набор основных и высокие духовные потребности.привлекать и удерживать людей, организации должны учитывать индивидуальные потребности и мотивации и их удовлетворить.организация как структура подгрупп и культурного продуктаофициальные группы (департаменты, комитеты) были выявлены и выбранных руководителей организаций и их основные характеристики организационной легитимности и целевая направленность.неофициальные группы (например, спортивные группы) не создано управление.люди в этих группах вместе, чтобы получить долю в общих интересах, а не на работу, их деятельность в их (поддержка друзей).организации также культурной продукции.понятие культуры трудно определить.но, если сопоставить организации в различных странах, их культурные различия очень ярких и важных.несмотря на аналогичные работы и процедур, департаменты полиции, например, в индии, германии и японии значительно отличаются друг от друга.предлагая маленький подарок, полицейский может считаться коррупции в одной стране и знак уважения в другой.государственный администратор